Matched versus unmatched primary representational systems and their relationship to perceived trustworthiness in a counseling analogue.

Examined R. Bandler and J. Grinder's (1976) statement that trust in a relationship will be enhanced if the counselor matches the client's primary representational system (PRS). The PRS concept was based on the assumption that people organize their experiences of the world in internal representational systems or "maps," which are in turn organized by sensory systems—visual, auditory, or kinesthetic. A further assumption of the model was that people tend to favor one sensory system and that the favored system becomes the PRS. In the present study, an interview was structured with 24 right-handed female undergraduates in which the interviewers either matched or did not match their predicates to the PRS of the Ss. Levels of perceived trustworthiness were assessed by the Counselor Rating Form—Trustworthiness scale. Results show that when interviews matched predicates to S's PRSs as determined through eye-movement observations, levels of perceived trustworthiness were higher. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Help-seeking attitudes and perceptions of counselor behavior.

Evaluated with 219 female undergraduates the Fischer-Turner Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Psychological Help inventory and its component factor scales in terms of their "known groups" validity and their predictive utility in counseling research. Ss reporting prior professional assistance for psychological problems espoused more favorable attitudes (including greater recognition of need, stigma tolerance, interpersonal openness, and confidence in mental health practitioners) than Ss without such professional contact. Ss listened to taped counseling interviews and rated the counselors on several perceptual and expectancy variables (including the Relationship Inventory). Help-seeking attitudes were found to represent a significant positive influence on the counselors' perceived expertise, trustworthiness, regard, empathy, genuineness, and general helpfulness; on Ss' expected willingness to return for a 2nd interview; and on their expectancies of improvement across a variety of personal problems. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptions of empathy as a function of the measuring instrument.

Studied the perceptions of empathy among 12 clients, 12 counselors, 12 observers, and 2 judges on the empathy subscale of the Truax Relationship Inventory and on R. R. Carkhuff's (1969) empathy rating scale. Psychology graduate students served as counselor Ss; all other Ss were undergraduates. Results indicate strong agreement among all participants of the counseling process on their perceptions of empathy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Representational systems and eye movements in an interview.

Tested the assumption that the perceived relationship between counselor (interviewer) and client (participant) is enhanced using the model postulated by J. Grinder et al (1977). 72 17–27 yr olds participated in 1 of 2 interview conditions: (a) a congruent interview in which interviewers responded with "perceptual predicates" that matched Ss' representational system as indicated by eye movement and (b) an incongruent interview in which interviewers mismatched Ss' representational system. Empathy, ease, anxiety, and hostility were measured by 3 self-report instruments: Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory-Empathic Understanding Scale, Ease of Communication Inventory, and Multiple Affect Adjective Check List. Seven hypotheses used to test the main effects and interactions of sex of interviewer, sex of participant, and condition revealed questionable support for the notion of increased rapport when interviewers responded congruently to representational systems indicated by Ss' eye movements. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neurolinguistic programming: The impact of imagery tasks on sensory predicate usage.

Investigated the impact of varied imaging tasks on the use of sensory predicates by 45 right-handed White females (aged 18–40 yrs). Ss completed a background questionnaire and 2 imagery questionnaires before completing pleasant and unpleasant imagery tasks in visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic sensory modalities. Four additional tasks included having Ss report a pleasant and an unpleasant image using 5 sensory modalities, and earliest memory, and an accomplishment experience. Randomly selected images were coded by therapists. Previous studies of the neurolinguistic programming have considered sensory predicates as a trait measure, indicative of a person's preferred or primary representation system. Results of the present study demonstrate that Ss were able to vary their type of sensory predicates according to the task demands or situational context. Thus, most Ss were auditory types during auditory imaging tasks and kinaesthetic types during kinaesthetic imaging tasks. Findings are incongruent with R. Bandler and J. Grinder's (1979) conceptualization of representational systems, but they support A. Hammer's (see record 1983-26385-001) recommendations for therapists to continuously track and match clients' sensory predicates. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Premature cognitive commitment.

Examined the effect of conditions of initial exposure to information on the "mindless" processing of information and its subsequent use. In Exp I, 64 college students received information about perceptual deficits while the perceived relevance of that information was manipulated. On assessment tests, Ss "found" they had this deficit. On follow-up perceptual tasks, the group initially informed that the deficit was seemingly irrelevant showed severe performance decrements relative to other groups. Exp II (52 Ss) used a similar procedure for perceptual skill. Ss initially exposed to "irrelevant" information performed more productively than Ss initially exposed to "relevant" information. Results indicate that conditions surrounding initial exposure to information limit its subsequent use. Implications for social, psychological, and physical symptoms are discussed. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Counselor verbal response modes and experienced empathy": Correction to Barkham and Shapiro.

Reports an error in "Counselor verbal response modes and experienced empathy" by Michael Barkham and David A. Shapiro (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1986[Jan], Vol 33[1], 3-10). The second paragraph of the author acknowledgement should have read as follows: We thank Ian Spalding for supervision of the session recordings, Liz Colley for programming and advice on data analysis, Richard Shillcock and Jane Oakhill for response mode coding, and Robert Elliott for comments on a draft. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1986-15306-001.) Client and counselor perceptions of empathy at different stages in the counseling process were examined in relation to the verbal response modes used by counselors in 24 client–counselor dyads. Each of 6 counselors (aged 32–58 yrs) at college counseling centers was studied in counseling with 4 clients, of whom 2 were in initial sessions and 2 were in sessions drawn from ongoing counseling relationships. Clients perceived counselors as showing significantly greater empathy during ongoing than during initial sessions, and counselors perceived themselves as showing significantly greater empathy during initial sessions than did clients rating the same sessions. Clients rated counselors using fewer general advisements as more empathic, whereas counselors who rated themselves more empathic used more explorations and fewer reassurances. At the moment-to-moment level tapped by interpersonal process recall, exploration was the only category strongly associated with both client and counselor experiences of empathic communication in both initial and ongoing sessions. (50 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of trait labels in counseling supervision by experienced and inexperienced supervisors.

On the basis of attribution theory, it was hypothesized that as supervisors gain experience at counseling, they would attribute their supervisee's counseling behaviors less often to counselor traits than would supervisors who have little or no counseling experience. 10 min of an audiotaped counseling session were presented to 82 Ss in 4 groups: undergraduate psychology students, master's degree students in counseling and clinical psychology, post-master's degree students, and post-PhD counselors. The Ss then rated the degree to which the counselor could be described by 8 trait labels. As predicted, Ss with more counseling experience made weaker trait attributions than did those with little or no experience. It is suggested that this result is due to the increased empathy of experienced counselors. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor verbal response modes and experienced empathy.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 34(3) of Journal of Counseling Psychology (see record 2008-10749-001). The second paragraph of the author acknowledgement should have read as follows: We thank Ian Spalding for supervision of the session recordings, Liz Colley for programming and advice on data analysis, Richard Shillcock and Jane Oakhill for response mode coding, and Robert Elliott for comments on a draft.] Client and counselor perceptions of empathy at different stages in the counseling process were examined in relation to the verbal response modes used by counselors in 24 client–counselor dyads. Each of 6 counselors (aged 32–58 yrs) at college counseling centers was studied in counseling with 4 clients, of whom 2 were in initial sessions and 2 were in sessions drawn from ongoing counseling relationships. Clients perceived counselors as showing significantly greater empathy during ongoing than during initial sessions, and counselors perceived themselves as showing significantly greater empathy during initial sessions than did clients rating the same sessions. Clients rated counselors using fewer general advisements as more empathic, whereas counselors who rated themselves more empathic used more explorations and fewer reassurances. At the moment-to-moment level tapped by interpersonal process recall, exploration was the only category strongly associated with both client and counselor experiences of empathic communication in both initial and ongoing sessions. (50 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nonverbal behavior and perceived counselor attractiveness and persuasiveness.

Investigated the perception of counselor attractiveness and persuasiveness through the expression of nonverbal behavior. Ss were 20 male and 20 female psychology undergraduates. 2 male and female counselors were trained to portray "affiliative" manner and "unaffiliative" manner. In a repeated measures design, Ss saw 4 different counselors and then rated them on scales measuring perceived attractiveness and persuasiveness. Results indicate that counselors in the affiliative manner condition were perceived as significantly more attractive and persuasive than counselors in the unaffiliative condition. Ss attributed greater attractiveness and persuasiveness to the same nonverbal cues encoded into the roles. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stress and coping among university counselors: A minority perspective.

78 university and college ethnic minority counselors identified on a questionnaire the types of on-the-job stress they encounter and the availability of self-help networks and/or other mechanisms used to cope with such stressors. The responses from Ss who indicated they had an adequate self-help network were compared with responses from Ss who felt that their self-help network was inadequate. Ss with inadequate self-help networks indicated they were experiencing more on-the-job stress, perceived the university as less supportive of their role as a "minority" counselor, and identified more conflict of role definition between themselves and their supervisors than Ss with adequate self-help networks. Both groups of Ss indicated that they preferred to rely primarily on themselves for support when experiencing stress but that they would also turn to a professional associate, family member, or work associate to help them cope with job-related stress. Implications for the training of minority persons as counselors are discussed, and strategies are suggested for facilitating the development of viable self-help networks. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptual characteristics of the amiloride-suppressed sodium chloride taste response in the rat.

Assessed the contribution of amiloride-sensitive membrane components to the perception of NaCl taste using a conditioned taste aversion procedure with 8 groups of adult rats conditioned to avoid either 0.1M NaCl, 0.5M NaCl, 0.1M NH?Cl, or 1.0M sucrose while their tongues were exposed either to water or to amiloride hydrochloride. Differences in the acquisition of taste aversions between the amiloride- and nonamiloride-treated groups were not apparent when the conditioned stimulus (CS) was 0.5M NaCl, 0.1M NH?Cl, or 1.0M sucrose. Although the magnitude of the 0.5M NaCl aversion was similar between amiloride- and nonamiloride-treated Ss, the perceptual characteristics of the CS differed between groups. Amiloride-treated Ss avoided monochloride salts after conditioning to 0.5M NaCl but not nonsodium salts or nonsalt stimuli. Ss not treated with amiloride only generalized the 0.5M NaCl aversion to sodium salts. The "salty" taste of NaCl is related to the amiloride-sensitive portion of the functional taste response in rats. The portion of the NaCl response insensitive to amiloride has "sour-salty" perceptual characteristics and is not perceived as being salty. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Approaches to empathy training: Programmed methods versus individual supervision and professional versus peer supervisors.

Examined the effects of training method (programmed vs individual supervision) and supervisor experience (peer vs professional) on the learning of empathy. Eight supervisors (4 professional and 4 peer) were assigned 3 Ss in each of 3 groups: individually supervised, programmed, and control. Ss listened to 3 sets of recorded client statements and responded as counselors. The 2 experimental groups received training after the 1st and 2nd sets. The control group received no training. An analysis of recorded responses indicated that the individually supervised Ss achieved a significantly higher level of empathy than the controls. Ss receiving programmed training were intermediate in learning between individually supervised and control Ss. Supervisor experience was not found to be a significant factor as no posttraining differences were noted between professional and peer-trained groups. This result supports the use of peers in such interpersonal skills training. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intervention patterns in crisis interviews.

Compared the response patterns of 2 groups of counselors experienced in crisis intervention. Ss were 10 clinical psychology graduate students. One group was trained according to the model of T. N. Rusk (see record 1972-06903-001) and the other in the brief, focal therapy approach. Judges were trained to rate the occurrence of 4 therapist interventions--explicit empathy, information gathering, consenual formulation, and problem solving--across interview segments. With the excep tion of explicit empathy, no between-group differences in frequency of interventions were found. Across time segments, each intervention followed a distinct pattern as hypothesized by Rusk. It is concluded the combined patterns of interventions may provide counselors with a cognitive map of process goals as they proceed through a crisis interview. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal skill training for dating couples: An evaluation of an educational mental health service.

In a previous study by S. Schlein (1971) of a preventative mental health program which stressed relationship improvement by maximizing empathy and self-disclosure, the efficacy of the program in improving communication and the general quality of the relationship between 48 college dating couples was demonstrated. The present reanalysis of Schlein's data shows that the experimental group, compared to the control group, also improved significantly on 2 key behavior rating scales by R. R. Carkhuff which are widely used to assess the efficacy of general helping relationship skills. As a result of less than 20 hrs of training, participants moved from providing levels of skills typical of college students to levels provided by typical counselors. The Empathy scale was highly correlated with 2 other Carkhuff scales, Respect and Immediacy. The trained Ss also showed a significantly greater increase in self-disclosure. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential expression of empathy in a counseling analogue.

Administered an incomplete sentences measure of conceptual functioning to 40 graduate counseling students. Ss then made written responses to 12 statements by each of 2 clients in a 2 * 2 factorial analysis of variance design (Counselor's Complexity * Analogue Complexity). Results indicate that (a) the more complex counselors expressed a significantly higher level of empathy, and (b) the level of empathy manifested was conditioned by a significant interaction effect between type of counselor and client. The implications for studying the phenomena of differential effects are discussed. (21 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the cross-modal perception of intensity.

Examined whether cross-modality matches are based on absolute equivalences between the intensities of perceptual experiences in different senses or on relative positions within the respective sets of stimuli. In 3 experiments, with a total of 53 Ss, the levels of stimulus magnitude in one modality stayed constant while the levels in the other changed from session to session. Results obtained by magnitude matching and cross-modal difference estimation reveal that (1) the cross-modality matches seemed to represent a compromise between absolute equivalence and relative (contextual) comparison; (2) individual variations abounded, with some Ss evidencing totally absolute matching, others totally relative matching; (3) the judgments of cross-modal difference were consistent with a model of linear subtraction, and in the case of loudness, the underlying scale was roughly compatible with S. S. Stevens's (1975) sone scale; and (4) a model designed to describe sequential dependencies in response accounted for at least part of the context-induced changes in cross-modal equivalence. (54 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)