Effects of conceptual level and supervision structure on counselor skill development.

Assigned 60 female introductory psychology students to high-structured supervision, low-structured supervision, or nonsupervised controls. Experimental Ss took part in both didactic and supervisory sessions. Nonsupervised controls received didactic training only. Self-report measures generally supported the "matching model" (D. E. Hunt; see PA, Vol 52:1699) predictions for low conceptual level participants, whereas behavioral measures yielded minimal support (Paragraph Completion Method, Critical Incident Tape 1, Communication Index, Training Reaction Questionnaire). Compared with controls, supervised trainees improved minimally on quantitative dimensions and significantly on qualitative dimensions of reflection-of-feeling responses. Supervised trainees also improved their level of empathic communication beyond that achieved by controls. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of supervision in microtraining and the impact of individual differences in learning style on self-report and behavioral measures. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Approaching supervision from a developmental perspective: The counselor complexity model.

Presents a model of counselor supervision that conceptualizes the training process as a sequence of identifiable stages through which the trainee progresses. The progress of the trainee is described from the entry level counselor through the advanced master counselor stage. Characteristics of trainees at each of the 4 levels of the model are discussed, as are the appropriate supervision environments that encourage development to the next level. The supervisor skills of discrimination and the creating of environments are discussed in relation to trainee characteristics and the appropriate environments for the supervision process. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal interaction and supervisor perception in counselor supervision.

20 dyads of masters-level counseling practicum students (aged 23–52 yrs) and their supervisors (aged 28–51 yrs) were audiotaped during 1 supervisory session. The counselor trainee's and supervisor's verbal interaction in supervision was rated using a 15-category system for analyzing supervisor–teacher interaction. These scores were correlated with the trainee's perceptions of the supervisor on the interpersonal influence characteristics of expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness, as measured by a supervisor rating form. 45 Pearson correlations between measures were calculated, with 8 comparisons reaching the .05 level of significance. Significant relationships were found between some categories of verbal behavior and 1 or more perceived supervisor characteristics. It is concluded that a moderate relationship exists between the nature of the interaction in supervision and perceptions the counselor forms about the supervisor. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measuring the working alliance in counselor supervision.

We developed the Supervisory Working Alliance Inventory (SWAI) to measure the relationship in counselor supervision. SWAI was based conceptually on the work of R. R. Greenson (1967), H. B. Pepinsky and M. J. Patton (1971), and others. Three supervisor factors (Client Focus, Rapport, and Identification) and two trainee factors (Rapport and Client Focus) were extracted by factor analysis. The scores on the SWAI were found to possess adequate scale reliability, and evidence of convergent and divergent validity for the SWAI was established by examining its relation to selected scales from the Supervisory Styles Inventory (M. L. Friedlander and L. G. Ward; see record 1985-05618-001). Trainee scores on the Rapport and Client Focus scales of the SWAI were significant predictors of scores on the Self-Efficacy Inventory (Friedlander and J. Snyder; see record 1984-04972-001). Implications for counselor training are discussed in the context of additional research on the psychometric properties of the SWAI. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Models of counselor development or training models for supervision? Rejoinder to Stoltenberg and Delworth.

This rejoinder to Stoltenberg and Delworth's comments on my earlier article on developmental models of supervision focuses on three critical issues in the investigation of these models: (a) the distinction between models of becoming a counselor and models of training in counselor education; (b) the methodological issues in the investigation of counselor development and supervisory relationships; and (c) the characterization of conceptual level as a content-specific variable. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Supervisees' perceptions of their development: A test of the counselor complexity model.

Examined the perceptions of 91 trainees in counseling and clinical psychology regarding their development of counseling and supervision behaviors. Ss were from 8 geographically diverse training programs and were categorized into 3 levels on the basis of a composite of their degree of experience in graduate school, counseling, and received supervision. Ss' responses to an instrument designed to assess constructs relevant to the 2nd author's (see record 1981-06282-001) counselor complexity model were examined across these experience levels. Results indicate that higher-level Ss reported greater self-awareness, autonomy, acquisition of counseling skills and understanding of theory than did Ss at a lower experience level. Implications for developmental models of supervision are discussed. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptions of counselor supervision: An examination of Stoltenberg's model from the perspectives of supervisor and supervisee.

We used Stoltenberg's (1981) developmental model of counselor supervision in an examination of relational consequences of supervisors' and supervisees' disagreements about a supervisee's counseling sophistication. We also sought support for Stoltenberg's proposed optimal supervision environments. Eighty-seven supervisors and 77 supervisees from 31 randomly selected university counseling and clinical psychology programs around the United States categorized supervisees as belonging to one of four developmental levels. They also provided demographic information, estimated supervisory behavior frequencies, and made satisfaction and impact ratings. Results indicated that (a) supervisors perceived themselves as varying their behavior with supervisees of different developmental levels in a manner that accorded with Stoltenberg's model, (b) supervisees did not perceive the differences reported in supervisors' behaviors, and (c) supervisees reported significantly less satisfaction and impact when they were in mismatched pairs with supervisors, although supervisors did not. In subsequent analyses, we found that supervisees preferred supervision that was characterized by a collegial relation with a focus on trainee personal development and self-understanding. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of sex of model and media of model presentation on skill development of counselor trainees.

Examined the effect of written vs videotaped model presentation and the effect of a male vs a female model on beginning counselor trainee's production of counselor tacting response leads (CTRL). 65 beginning master's degree students in counseling were randomly assigned to 1 of 5 treatment conditions—videotaped male model, videotaped female model, written model present, written model not present, and control. Each S's responses to a series of 16 videotaped client vignettes were rated for frequency and quality of CTRLs. As hypothesized, no differences were found between male and female models. Significant differences for the 3 qualitative measures of CTRLs were found for videotaped models over control and for the written models over control. No differences between the videotaped models and written models were obtained. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A transtheoretical model of clinical supervision.

The purpose of this article is to introduce a transtheoretical model of clinical supervision for professional psychology. The various stages and processes of change inherent in the transtheoretical psychotherapy model (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1982, 1984, 1986; Prochaska & Norcross, 2007) are assessed and applied to clinical supervision. Specifically, relevant literature is examined; supervisee stages of change (SSC) and supervisor processes of change (SPC) are introduced and discussed; and existent models of supervision are contextually compared to the proposed transtheoretical model. Strategies and recommendations for implementing and researching a transtheoretical approach to clinical supervision are also provided. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A Study of Hogan's Model of Counselor Development and Supervision: Correction.

Reports an error in the original article "A Study of Hogan's Model of Counselor Development and Supervision" by G. N. Reising and H. M. Daniels (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1983, Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 235-244). 244). Errors appear in the placement of asterisks (*) denoting significance level in Tables 1 and 2. Significance levels should read as follows: For the Table 1 comparison (A vs. B): Factor 1 = as shown. For the Table 1 comparison (C vs. D): Factor 1 = ns; Factor 2 = ** (p 1983-26518-001): The construct validity and developmental structure of R. A. Hogan's (see record 196600843-001) model of counselor development and supervision were studied using a sample of 141 counseling psychology graduate student trainees, interns, and professional staff in 20 university counseling centers. Counselor development questionnaire items were developed into 2 arrangements: one based on Hogan's concepts as he organized them into levels, and another derived empirically using factor analysis. The 2 configurations were compared for their ability to predict experience level of Ss using discriminant function analysis. Each empirical factor was also examined for relationship with experience by means of 1-way ANOVA with preplanned comparisons. Results indicate that counselor development is best described by a complex rather than a simple model and that it involves factors of Anxiety/Doubt, Independence, Method/Skills Training, Work Validation, Commitment Ambivalence, and Respectful Confrontation. Developmental profiles of these issues are described, and implications for supervision and training programs are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential effects of counselor self-disclosure statements on perception of the counselor and willingness to disclose: A cross-cultural study.

Mexican and American undergraduates watched simulated interviews in which the counselor engaged in one of three forms of self-disclosure (SD) or else no SD. Although all subjects indicated that they would be most willing to self disclose to the counselor who did not personally engage in SD, Mexicans and Americans differed in how they perceived the counselors. Mexicans rated the counselor who did not engage in SD as being more trustworthy and expert than the others; Americans had no clear preference. For Mexican-American clients treated in this country, counselors may need to maintain a degree of formality that is unnecessary with American clients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

My racial identity development and supervision: A self-reflection.

Using the People of Color Racial Identity model (Helms & Cook, 1999) as a framework, the author reflects on her supervisory experience and professional development as an Asian immigrant psychologist. Through the author’s self-reflection, this article also illustrates how one’s racial identity development and professional experience mutually shape each other. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comprehensive set of counselor competencies.

75 experienced counselors or therapists from a variety of work settings contributed statements of those competencies they believed necessary for effective face-to-face counseling. The contributed competency statements were edited and compiled into a set of 132 competencies. Each of the 132 competencies was rated for importance by 376 experienced counselors and therapists. 12 dimensions of counselor competency were defined by factor analysis of the ratings. A number of significant differences in importance were found between the ratings of 9 of the 12 dimensions by raters of different work settings, theoretical orientations, majors or degrees, years of experience, and other background categories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of counselor gender and counselor sex role orientation on perceived counselor characteristics.

Assessed the influence of counselor (C) gender (male or female), C sex role orientation (traditional or egalitarian), S's sex role orientation (masculine, feminine, or androgynous), and client problem type (sex role related or not sex role related) on female Ss' judgments of their comfort with disclosing to Cs and their perceptions of the C's attractiveness, expertness, and trustworthiness. Results show that (a) S's ratings of comfort in disclosing was greater with female rather than male and with egalitarian rather than traditional Cs; (b) female egalitarian Cs were perceived as most expert, whereas female traditional Cs were perceived as least expert, and (c) male traditional Cs were perceived as least trustworthy. The presence of C gender and C sex role effects and the absence of effects as a function of problem type and Ss' sex role orientation are discussed. Suggestions are made concerning the need for more consistent definition of sex role orientation and designation of problem type. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychotherapy supervision: A cognitive–behavioral model.

A series of phases is proposed for the supervisory session. The goals of this model are to reduce negative emotions in the supervisee, to teach the supervisee to form and test hypotheses about the client's behaviors, and to teach the supervisee specific behavioral techniques. This model is also advanced in hopes of stimulating research on the little studied process of psychotherapy supervision. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reactance in relation to different supervisory environments and counselor development.

The purpose of this study was to examine counselor trainees' preference for structure in supervision as moderated by level of experience, reactance potential, and the content of supervision. Reactions of 78 practicum counselors to two of four audiotaped supervision sessions which varied on (a) amount of supervisor structure and (b) supervision content (suicidal client or client with relationship issues) were assessed. Beginning students preferred the structured supervision. The preference of structure for advanced students was moderated by reactance and content. For the relationship content, advanced students who were high on reactance preferred the low-structure supervision, while those with low reactance preferred the high-structure condition. In suicide content condition, advanced students preferred the structured supervision regardless of their level of reactance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential effects of counselor self-referent responses and counselor status.

Conducted a study with a 2?×?3 factorial design, the factors being status of counselor (paraprofessional vs professional) and counselor response type (high-intimacy self-disclosing, low-intimacy self-disclosing, and self-involving). Perceptions of and responses to the counselor by 180 female undergraduates were assessed. High self-disclosing and self-involving counselors were rated as more expert and trustworthy than the low self-disclosing counselor. Paraprofessionals were rated as more attractive and trustworthy than professionals. Ss' responses to high self-disclosing and self-involving counselors contained more client self-referents than responses to the low self-disclosing counselors. Responses to the low self-disclosing counselor were more likely to be phrased in the past and future and contained more counselor-focused statements than responses to the high self-disclosing or self-involving counselor. Responses to the high self-disclosing counselor contained more affective words and fewer counselor references than responses to the self-involving or low self-disclosing counselors. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A developmental model for teaching and learning in psychotherapy supervision.

Contends that supervision of psychotherapy is a complicated responsibility because the supervisor's commitment is divided between supporting the growth of the student and protecting the welfare of the client. The phenomenon of the treatment relationship can be obscured by parallel processes in the supervision. A model based on a set of developmental crises that reflect stages of learning and maturation in therapist growth is proposed. Crises in learning psychotherapy include (1) the demand for wide-ranging tolerance of ambiguity, (2) recognition and acceptance of the limits of one's capacity to offer therapeutic conditions, (3) the discovery of therapy as deep communication, and (4) the emergence of a conceptual set in which a variety of models of therapeutic intervention are related to the needs of varying patients. It is suggested that the behavior of the supervisor in dealing with problems in supervised psychotherapy is the real modeling. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)