A Study of Hogan's Model of Counselor Development and Supervision: Correction.

Reports an error in the original article "A Study of Hogan's Model of Counselor Development and Supervision" by G. N. Reising and H. M. Daniels (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1983, Vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 235-244). 244). Errors appear in the placement of asterisks (*) denoting significance level in Tables 1 and 2. Significance levels should read as follows: For the Table 1 comparison (A vs. B): Factor 1 = as shown. For the Table 1 comparison (C vs. D): Factor 1 = ns; Factor 2 = ** (p 1983-26518-001): The construct validity and developmental structure of R. A. Hogan's (see record 196600843-001) model of counselor development and supervision were studied using a sample of 141 counseling psychology graduate student trainees, interns, and professional staff in 20 university counseling centers. Counselor development questionnaire items were developed into 2 arrangements: one based on Hogan's concepts as he organized them into levels, and another derived empirically using factor analysis. The 2 configurations were compared for their ability to predict experience level of Ss using discriminant function analysis. Each empirical factor was also examined for relationship with experience by means of 1-way ANOVA with preplanned comparisons. Results indicate that counselor development is best described by a complex rather than a simple model and that it involves factors of Anxiety/Doubt, Independence, Method/Skills Training, Work Validation, Commitment Ambivalence, and Respectful Confrontation. Developmental profiles of these issues are described, and implications for supervision and training programs are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Supervisees' perceptions of their development: A test of the counselor complexity model.

Examined the perceptions of 91 trainees in counseling and clinical psychology regarding their development of counseling and supervision behaviors. Ss were from 8 geographically diverse training programs and were categorized into 3 levels on the basis of a composite of their degree of experience in graduate school, counseling, and received supervision. Ss' responses to an instrument designed to assess constructs relevant to the 2nd author's (see record 1981-06282-001) counselor complexity model were examined across these experience levels. Results indicate that higher-level Ss reported greater self-awareness, autonomy, acquisition of counseling skills and understanding of theory than did Ss at a lower experience level. Implications for developmental models of supervision are discussed. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Empirical investigation of the cognitive mediational paradigm for research on counseling.

Examined relations among counselor and client cognitions, behaviors, and ratings in 29 counseling sessions involving 10 different counselor–client pairs, using stimulated recall and content analysis. Clients were university students; there were 4 counselors with 7–25 yrs' experience and 3 who were counseling interns. The design of the study permitted assessments of the impact of counselor experience (novice vs experienced) and stage of counseling (early, middle, and end) on these variables. Consistency in various parts of the sequential chain of counselor intention (counselor behavior, client perceptions of counselor intention and behavior, client cognitive processing, and client behavior) was lower for interpersonal cognitive than for interpersonal behavioral or intrapersonal cognitive–behavioral links. Consistency across different elements in this chain was observed to account for a significant proportion of the variance in counselor ratings of session effectiveness. Consistent, interpretable patterns observed across counselor intentions, counselor behaviors, and client cognitive processing are discussed. Relatively few effects of stage of counseling or of counselor experience were observed. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of supervisory style on counselor effectiveness and facilitative responding.

Examined the effects of high and low didactic or experiential supervision groups and a no-supervision group on counselor effectiveness and facilitative responding. 30 undergraduates were assigned as counselors on a random stratified basis by sex and supervisor to the 5 groups for 3 counseling interviews, the 1st 2 followed by supervision. Three actresses portrayed clients, and supervisors had a minimum of 1 yr's experience. The dependent variables, counselor effectiveness as measured by the Counseling Evaluation Inventory and facilitative responding as measured by the Barrett-Lennard Relationship Inventory, were subjected to a series of 1-way ANOVAs. Duncan's new multiple-range test was used for comparisons of means. Results indicate that inexperienced counseling students can be taught specific basic counseling skills in a brief supervisory encounter of a didactic or combined didactic–experiential nature coupled with some form of actual practice. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal activity, sex, counselor experience, and success in counseling.

Examined the contribution made by client and counselor verbal activity, client and counselor sex, and counselor experience to satisfaction and symptom relief. Ss were 18 male and 5 female counselors employed at a university counseling service (9 of whom were experienced), 34 undergraduates, and 2 graduate students. 20 of the students were female and 16 were male. Counselor-offered facilitative conditions were held constant. Data were analyzed using a multiple regression analysis. Clients seeing experienced counselors reported better outcomes. Neither sex nor activity of the therapeutic participants contributed to therapeutic success. Explanations of findings and implications for counseling practice are discussed. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor verbal response modes and experienced empathy.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 34(3) of Journal of Counseling Psychology (see record 2008-10749-001). The second paragraph of the author acknowledgement should have read as follows: We thank Ian Spalding for supervision of the session recordings, Liz Colley for programming and advice on data analysis, Richard Shillcock and Jane Oakhill for response mode coding, and Robert Elliott for comments on a draft.] Client and counselor perceptions of empathy at different stages in the counseling process were examined in relation to the verbal response modes used by counselors in 24 client–counselor dyads. Each of 6 counselors (aged 32–58 yrs) at college counseling centers was studied in counseling with 4 clients, of whom 2 were in initial sessions and 2 were in sessions drawn from ongoing counseling relationships. Clients perceived counselors as showing significantly greater empathy during ongoing than during initial sessions, and counselors perceived themselves as showing significantly greater empathy during initial sessions than did clients rating the same sessions. Clients rated counselors using fewer general advisements as more empathic, whereas counselors who rated themselves more empathic used more explorations and fewer reassurances. At the moment-to-moment level tapped by interpersonal process recall, exploration was the only category strongly associated with both client and counselor experiences of empathic communication in both initial and ongoing sessions. (50 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Approaching supervision from a developmental perspective: The counselor complexity model.

Presents a model of counselor supervision that conceptualizes the training process as a sequence of identifiable stages through which the trainee progresses. The progress of the trainee is described from the entry level counselor through the advanced master counselor stage. Characteristics of trainees at each of the 4 levels of the model are discussed, as are the appropriate supervision environments that encourage development to the next level. The supervisor skills of discrimination and the creating of environments are discussed in relation to trainee characteristics and the appropriate environments for the supervision process. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A laboratory study of the effects of varying levels of counselor eye contact on client-focused and problem-focused counseling styles.

Studied the effects of varying durations of counselor eye contact over 2 counseling conditions: (a) client-focused counseling style, defined as the counselor focusing on the client's thoughts and feelings about the presenting problem; and (b) problem-focused counseling style, defined as the counselor focusing on the problems themselves. 60 female undergraduates observed videotaped segments of counseling interviews depicting 1 of 6 conditions involving either client-focused or problem-focused counseling styles and either low, medium, or high counselor eye contact. Ss then rated the counselor on 3 dimensions of counselor effectiveness: genuineness, competence, and self-confidence. Results show that counselors using both counseling styles were rated progressively higher on all 3 dimensions from the low- to the medium- to the high-gaze condition. In the problem-focused condition, the counselor was rated lower on the genuineness factor than either competence or self-confidence. When broken down by gaze levels, these differences did not hold up for the high level of eye contact. There were no significant differences between counselor ratings on the 3 dimensions of counselor effectiveness for the client-focused condition. Results are discussed with respect to related research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Counselor verbal response modes and experienced empathy": Correction to Barkham and Shapiro.

Reports an error in "Counselor verbal response modes and experienced empathy" by Michael Barkham and David A. Shapiro (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1986[Jan], Vol 33[1], 3-10). The second paragraph of the author acknowledgement should have read as follows: We thank Ian Spalding for supervision of the session recordings, Liz Colley for programming and advice on data analysis, Richard Shillcock and Jane Oakhill for response mode coding, and Robert Elliott for comments on a draft. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1986-15306-001.) Client and counselor perceptions of empathy at different stages in the counseling process were examined in relation to the verbal response modes used by counselors in 24 client–counselor dyads. Each of 6 counselors (aged 32–58 yrs) at college counseling centers was studied in counseling with 4 clients, of whom 2 were in initial sessions and 2 were in sessions drawn from ongoing counseling relationships. Clients perceived counselors as showing significantly greater empathy during ongoing than during initial sessions, and counselors perceived themselves as showing significantly greater empathy during initial sessions than did clients rating the same sessions. Clients rated counselors using fewer general advisements as more empathic, whereas counselors who rated themselves more empathic used more explorations and fewer reassurances. At the moment-to-moment level tapped by interpersonal process recall, exploration was the only category strongly associated with both client and counselor experiences of empathic communication in both initial and ongoing sessions. (50 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evaluative reaction to interpersonal touch in a counseling interview.

Investigated the effects of the use of touch gestures by counselors on client evaluative responses to the counseling experience, using a 2 (touch vs no touch)?×?2 (male vs female client)?×?2 (male vs female counselor) between-Ss design. Clients who were touched evaluated the counseling experience more positively than no-touch control Ss. However, the magnitude of the effect of touch was affected by the sex composition of the counseling dyad, with stronger effects occurring when clients were touched by an opposite-sex counselor. Results are discussed in terms of conceptual implications and with respect to applied relevance for therapeutic practice and the training of counselors. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development and validation of the Counseling Self-Estimate Inventory.

Describes the development of the Counseling Self-Estimate Inventory through 5 studies. A factor analysis (N?=?213) yielded 5 factors that reflect counselor trainees' confidences in using microskills, attending to process, dealing with difficult client behaviors, behaving in a culturally competent way, and being aware of one's values. Reliability estimates indicate that the items are internally consistent (α?=?.93) and stable over time. Initial validity estimates show that the instrument is (1) positively related to counselor performance, self-concept, problem-solving appraisal, performance expectations, and class satisfaction; (2) negatively related to state and trait anxiety; (3) minimally related to aptitude, achievement, personality type, and defensiveness; and (4) sensitive to change over the course of master's practicum and across different levels of counselors. Also, trait anxiety and counseling self-efficacy were significant predictors of counselor trainee performance. The development of a reliable and valid counseling self-efficacy instrument has training and research implications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of supervisor experience level on planning and in-session supervisor verbal behavior.

Examined the effects of supervisor experience level on presession planning and in-session supervisor verbal behavior. 30 supervisors representing no, low (1? to 3 yrs), and high (4 to 25 yrs) levels of experience (mean ages 27.3, 28.7, and 35.8 yrs, respectively) listened to a 30-min audiotaped counseling interaction and then recorded thoughts and strategies for supervision in a 30-min planning session. Ss then conducted a 30-min supervision session with the counselor. Analyses of audiotapes from the planning and supervision sessions revealed no significant differences between the 3 levels of supervisory experience in planning statements. However, significant differences were observed in the actual supervision session, with low- and high-experience Ss being similar to each other and different from the no-experience group on several dependent measures. Results also indicate that the counselor rated the low- and high-experience Ss more positively than the no-experience Ss. No relation was observed between statements generated during the planning session and those occurring during supervision. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Validation of counselor social reinforcement and persuasion scales.

Assessed the validity of V. M. Packwood and C. A. Parker's (see record 1973-21578-001) counselor social reinforcement and persuasion scales, which are based on an interaction model that rates the client response and the counselor behavior. Ss were 2 counselors, 1 trained in reinforcing counseling and the other trained in persuasive counseling. 3 3-min taped segments randomly selected from 8 interviews by each S were divided into client-counselor-client statement units and reliably rated and rerated by 6 judges. The mean rating for the 2 Ss on each scale was significantly different. Other evidence of the scales' validity and the appropriateness of the interaction model are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential perceptions of counselor behavior: Replication and extension.

Conducted 2 studies with 141 undergraduates in an attempt to replicate and extend the 1976 findings of M. B. LaCrosse and A. Barak (1976). In both studies the Counselor Rating Form was shown to be sensitive to perceived differences among and within counselors of moderate and minimal levels of training/experience. In both studies a significant positive relationship was noted between perceived counselor expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness and willingness to refer oneself to the observed counselor for a variety of counseling problems. The provision of a common baseline for S judgment (Study 2) resulted in expertness ratings more consistent with actual counselor training/experience than those of Study 1. The implications of this latter finding for methodological improvements in counseling analog studies are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social judgment theory and academic advisement.

13 advisors in a university student development program each made a large number of judgments concerning appropriate course selection for profiles of students based on archival data. These judgments were analyzed via regression analysis, and the judgment policy of each S was "captured." Three Ss (the director of counseling, a professional counselor, and a "peer" counselor) are described as examples of the potential use of the lens model in investigating curriculum advisement behavior. The power and limitations of this research model are briefly reviewed. Implications of the results, and of the findings of the social judgment literature in general, are explored. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of trait labels in counseling supervision by experienced and inexperienced supervisors.

On the basis of attribution theory, it was hypothesized that as supervisors gain experience at counseling, they would attribute their supervisee's counseling behaviors less often to counselor traits than would supervisors who have little or no counseling experience. 10 min of an audiotaped counseling session were presented to 82 Ss in 4 groups: undergraduate psychology students, master's degree students in counseling and clinical psychology, post-master's degree students, and post-PhD counselors. The Ss then rated the degree to which the counselor could be described by 8 trait labels. As predicted, Ss with more counseling experience made weaker trait attributions than did those with little or no experience. It is suggested that this result is due to the increased empathy of experienced counselors. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in supervision as counselors and therapists gain experience: A review.

Considerable research relevant to counselor and therapist development has been done since E. L. Worthington's (see record 1988-21517-001) review. Additional support has surfaced for Worthington's conclusions: There is support for general developmental models, perceptions of supervisors and supervisees are consistent with developmental theories, the behaviors of supervisors change as counselors gain experience, and the supervision relationship changes as counselors gain experience. Although the types of research used and the sophistication of data analysis have improved somewhat, too few studies directly address changes over time for trainees in supervision. Suggestions are given for future research in supervision to reflect the level of specificity necessary to investigate developmental models. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Client self-terminations after one counseling session: Effects of problem recognition, counselor gender, and counselor experience.

From a pool of 758 clients seen individually by 1 of 34 counselors at a large university counseling center, 533 clients were identified as having self-terminated from counseling after their initial session or as having continued in counseling for at least 3 sessions. The authors investigated potential relationships between continuation in counseling and the variables of counselor experience, counselor gender, and counselor recognition of clients' problem definitions. As predicted, the results of logit analyses indicated that clients were more likely to self-terminate after 1 session when problem recognition was absent. This relationship was more pronounced for experienced counselors than it was for trainees, suggesting a possible explanation for the lack of a direct relationship between counselor experience and continuation in counseling in recent studies. Female counselors had higher rates of early premature terminations than male counselors. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)