Investigation of mechanical properties of friction-welded AISI 304 with AISI 1021 dissimilar steels

Austenitic stainless steel and low alloy steels are extensively used in various automotive, aerospace, nuclear, chemical, and other general purpose applications. Joining of dissimilar metals is one of the challenging tasks and most essential need of the present-day industry. It has been observed that a wide range of dissimilar materials can be easily integrated by friction welding. The objectives of the present investigation were obtaining weldments between austenitic stainless steel (AISI 304) with low alloy steel (AISI 1021) and optimizing the friction welding parameters in order to establish the weld quality. In the present study, an experimental setup was designed in order to achieve friction welding of plastically deformed austenitic stainless steel and low alloy steel. AISI 304 and AISI 1021 steels were welded by friction welding using five different axial pressures at 1,430 rpm. The joining performances of friction-welded dissimilar joints were studied, and influences of these process parameters on the mechanical properties of the friction-welded joints were estimated. The joint strength was determined with tensile testing, and the fracture behavior was examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and was supported and backed by energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analysis. Furthermore, the proposed joints were tested for impact strength, and the microhardness across the joint was also evaluated.     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of similar and dissimilar stainless steel electron beam and friction welds

Microstructure and mechanical properties of similar and dissimilar welds of austenitic stainless steel (AISI 304), ferritic stainless steel (AISI 430), and duplex stainless steel (AISI 2205) have been studied. Welding processes electron beam welding and friction welding were used. Optical, scanning electron microscopy, and electron probe microscopy were carried out to study the microstructural changes. Residual stress, hardness, tensile strength, and impact toughness testing were conducted to study mechanical behavior. Dissimilar metal electron beam welds of austenitic–ferritic, ferritic–duplex, and austenitic–duplex stainless steel welds contained coarse grains, which are predominantly equiaxed on austenitic, duplex stainless steel side, and they are columnar on the ferritic stainless steel side. Diffusion of elements was significant in electron beam welding and insignificant in friction welds. Austenitic–ferritic stainless steel exhibited tensile residual stress on the ferritic stainless steel side adjacent to the interface, compressive stresses on the austenitic stainless steel side that matches with the delta ferrite microstructure observed in this region. High compressive stresses were noted on duplex stainless steel side interface compared to austenitic stainless side interface. The highest tensile strength was observed in duplex–austenitic stainless steel joints. The impact strength and notch tensile strength of electron beam weldments are higher than the friction weldments. All electron beam and friction welds showed toughness lower than parent metals.     

Evaluation of the metallurgical and mechanical properties of friction-welded joints of dissimilar metal combinations AISI2205/Cu

In this study, the joining performances of AISI2205/Cu friction-welded joints were studied using different friction pressures (35, 50, and 65 MPa) and friction times (6, 9, and 12 s). The microstructural properties of welded samples were examined by scanning electron microscopy. In order to determine the phases that occurred during welding, welded samples were examined with energy dispersive spectrometry and X-ray diffraction analysis. The microhardness across the interface of samples was measured, and also the strength of the joints was determined with tensile tests. The experimental results indicate that the tensile strength of friction-welded AISI2205/Cu components were significantly affected by joining friction pressure and friction time selected.     

Influence of process parameters on impact toughness and hardness of dissimilar AISI 4140 and AISI 304 continuous drive friction welds

Dissimilar joints between austenitic stainless steel and low alloy steel are extensively used in many high temperature applications in the energy conversion systems. In the present investigation, emphasis is made on the influence of process parameters on the impact toughness and hardness of the friction welded joints between these two materials. The important process parameters in friction welding such as friction force, forge force, and burn-off lengths are considered for optimization by Taguchi method using L₈ 2⁷ orthogonal array. It is found that under low friction force, forging force, and burn-off conditions, the impact toughness is high due to the observed acicular martensite. Low impact toughness is reported for the welds made at higher levels of the parameters. Carbon depletion is also observed close to interface in low alloy steel side. Microhardness at the weld center is less than the microhardness on either side at the interface of low alloy steel and austenitic stainless steel close to weld center. The contribution of each parameter and significance of interactions of these parameters is determined by Taguchi method. Among these parameters, friction force has significant influence and forging force has negligible influence on microhardness. The burn-off has maximum influence while forge force has minimum effect on toughness of the welds. Statistical analysis of variance is carried out, optimum process parameters are evaluated, and regression equations are obtained.     

铝基复合材料─不锈钢摩擦焊焊接接头显微组织的电镜研究

利用电子显微镜技术系统地观察了铝基复合材料（ＭＭＣ）与奥氏体不锈钢之间摩擦焊焊接接头中的显微组织变化规律。发现强度较高的奥氏体不锈钢在焊接过程中发生了明显的塑性变形，焊接界面附近不同部位变形机制和特征不同，变形方式主要是形成形变孪晶、滑移带和位错亚结构。首次在透射电镜（ＴＥＭ）下观察到了一个由微晶氧化物组成的过渡层组织。     

Effects of welding wire and torch weaving on GMAW of S355MC and AISI 304L dissimilar welds

Dissimilar welding of austenitic stainless steel (ASS) to low-alloy structural steel is widely used in the power generation industry. The formation of brittle martensite and hot cracking susceptibility in the single-phase austenite microstructure are the main concerns related to the metallurgy of this kind of weld. This study investigates the effect of different welding wires and the weaving technique on the quality, microstructure and microhardness of fillet weld joints between AISI 304L austenitic stainless steel and S355MC low-alloy structural steel. Using robotised synergic gas metal arc welding (GMAW), three different filler wires were used to weld specimens with and without weaving. The macro-sections of the fillet welds were inspected and the dilution rates and ferrite numbers (FN) measured. The microstructure was also inspected and microhardness values recorded. Porosity was discerned in two weld samples made with the use of weave beads. The measured FNs for all the weldments were very close to estimations from the Schaeffler diagram. The formation of a narrow martensitic band on the ferritic side of the weld metal was detected for most of the specimens. It is concluded that weaving decreased the dilution rate and increased the FN. However, no obvious effect on the microstructure and hardness as a result of using the weaving technique was noticed.     

Investigation on the resistance spot-welded austenitic/ferritic stainless steel

In this work, the effect of weld current on joining capability of austenitic stainless steel (AISI 304) and ferritic stainless steel (AISI 430) sheets with application of resistance spot welding process was investigated. Macrostructure, microstructure, microhardness, tensile shear strength, and failure mode of welded materials were evaluated for different weld currents. The values of weld current were 2.5, 3.75, and 5 kA. It was found that when the weld current increased, the nugget size and the weld strength were increased. Two distinct failure modes including interfacial and pullout were observed during tensile shear test. Finally, an adequate weld current was obtained.     

Effect of friction welding parameters on mechanical and metallurgical properties of ferritic stainless steel

Friction welding is one of the most economical and highly productive methods in joining similar and dissimilar metals. It is widely used in the automotive and aerospace industrial applications. Ferritic stainless steel (AISI430) is normally difficult to weld by fusion methods, due to the associated problems such as grain growth and retained austenite content. Such problems can be alleviated by the friction joining process. The present study utilized a continuous drive friction welding machine to join cylindrical specimens of ferritic stainless steel of similar composition and shape (equal diameter and length). The processing parameters such as friction pressure, friction time, upsetting pressure and upsetting time were changed in order to understand the role of parameters on the strength related aspects of friction processed joints. The joints were subjected to mechanical testing methods such as the uni-axial tension test, and charpy ‘v’ notch impact tests. The micro hardness variation across the joint zone was determined. Micro structural studies were also carried out. The characteristics such as tensile strength, toughness and microstructural aspects exhibited by friction processed joints were compared to parent materials.     

锻造ZK60镁合金的搅拌摩擦焊工艺

采用搅拌摩擦焊焊接工艺对4 mm厚的锻造ZK60镁合金板进行了焊接试验,研究了搅拌头轴肩尺寸、旋转速度及焊接速度等对焊缝质量及接头抗拉强度的影响,并得到了较佳焊接工艺参数。结果表明:在其他条件一定时,焊接接头的抗拉强度随搅拌速度的增加而增大,随焊接速度的增加而先增大后减小;当搅拌头轴肩直径为15 mm、旋转速度为1 170 r.min-1,焊接速度为36 mm.min-1时,所得焊缝表面光滑,无裂纹、孔洞、疏松及未焊透等缺陷,接头的抗拉强度最大,为271.2 MPa,约为母材的85%。     

Tribological Properties of Borided AISI 4140 Steel with the Powder Pack-Boriding Method

The present study evaluates the tribological properties of boride layers on the surface of AISI 4140 steel, formed using the pack-boriding method. Commercial EKabor^®2 was used as the boronizing agent and the treatment was carried out at 900, 950, 1000, and 1050 °C for 2, 4, and 6 h, respectively. X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and microhardness tests were used to characterize the phase composition, microstructure, and local hardness, respectively, of the borided steel samples. Block-on-disc tests were used to investigate tribological properties. Abrasive wear tests were carried out using emery paper at a fixed sliding speed and three different loads. Adhesive wear tests were executed against AISI 52100 steel at a fixed load and distance. The coefficient of friction values (COF) of the samples were determined simultaneously during the tests. The weight loss and COF of the borided samples were compared with untreated samples and the results suggest that both wear resistance and friction properties of the AISI 4140 steel improve with boriding.     

Mechanical and metallurgical properties of friction welded AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel

Owing to the superior properties, of stainless steel it is pertinent to make use of it in various automotive, aerospace, nuclear, chemical and cryogenic applications. It is observed that a wide range of dissimilar materials can be easily integrated by solid phase bonding techniques, such as friction welding and explosive bonding. This study mainly focuses on friction welding of AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel. The friction processed joints are evaluated for their integrity and quality aspects. Friction welding of austenitic stainless steel was carried out using a KUKA friction welding machine (Germany). As the friction time increased, the fully plastically deformed zone (region I) in the vicinity of the bond line becomes increased. In contrast, an increase in friction time will decrease the region (region II) where the grains are partly deformed and grown. Tensile test results indicated that, the joint strength is decreased with an increase of the friction time. The detailed fractographic observation confirmed that the rupture occurred mostly at the joint zone and partly through the base material.     

Mechanical and metallurgical properties of friction welded AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel

Owing to the superior properties, of stainless steel it is pertinent to make use of it in various automotive, aerospace, nuclear, chemical and cryogenic applications. It is observed that a wide range of dissimilar materials can be easily integrated by solid phase bonding techniques, such as friction welding and explosive bonding. This study mainly focuses on friction welding of AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel. The friction processed joints are evaluated for their integrity and quality aspects. Friction welding of austenitic stainless steel was carried out using a KUKA friction welding machine (Germany). As the friction time increased, the fully plastically deformed zone (region I) in the vicinity of the bond line becomes increased. In contrast, an increase in friction time will decrease the region (region II) where the grains are partly deformed and grown. Tensile test results indicated that, the joint strength is decreased with an increase of the friction time. The detailed fractographic observation confirmed that the rupture occurred mostly at the joint zone and partly through the base material.     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of electron beam-welded AISI 409M-grade ferritic stainless steel

This paper deals with the microstructure and mechanical characterization of electron beam-welded AISI 409M-grade ferritic stainless steel joints. Single-pass autogenous welds free of volumetric defects were produced at a welding speed of 1,000?mm/min. The joints were subjected to optical microscopy, scanning electron fractography, microhardness, transverse and longitudinal tensile, bend and charpy impact toughness testing. The coarse ferrite grains in the base metal were changed into fine equiaxed axial grains and columnar grains as a result of characteristic rapid solidification of electron beam welds. Tensile testing indicates overmatching of the weld metal relative to the base metal. The joints exhibited acceptable impact toughness and bend strength properties.     

Weldability and joining characteristics of AISI 430/AISI 1040 steels using keyhole plasma arc welding

AISI 430 and AISI 1040 steel couples were welded using the keyhole plasma-transferred arc (KPTA) welding process. Welded joints were manufactured using three different traverse speeds (0.01, 0.02 and 0.03?m/min) under three different welding currents (130, 135 and 140 A) at a constant plasma gas flow rate (1.1?l/min) and a shielding gas rate (25?l/min). In order to determine the microstructural changes that occurred, the interface regions of the welded specimens were examined by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and Energy Dispersive Spectrometry (EDS) after KPTA welding. Microhardness, V-notch Charpy and tensile tests were conducted to determine the mechanical properties of the welded specimens.     

铸态和锻造态钛-硫易切削钢中硫化物形态及力学性能对比

熔炼了2种钛含量(质量分数分别为0.09％,0.21％)的钛-硫易切削钢,并在1200℃进行锻造,对比研究了铸态和锻造态试验钢组织中硫化物形貌、尺寸、数量以及试验钢的力学性能.结果表明:在铸态试验钢中,硫化锰大多为近似短棒状和球状,沿晶界呈链状或网状分布,锻造后硫化锰沿着锻造方向伸长,统计得到的长宽比增大,单位面积内数...     

Analysis of pulsed Nd:YAG laser welding of AISI 304 steel

Pulsed laser welding of AISI 304 stainless steel plate was simulated using commercial finite element software to determine the optimal welding conditions. Due to geometric symmetry, only one plate was modeled to reduce the simulation computation time. User subroutines were created to account for a moving three-dimensional heat source and to apply boundary conditions. The material properties such as conductivity, specific heat, and mass density were determined as functions of temperature. The latent heat was considered within the given temperature range. The three-dimensional heat source model for pulsed laser beam butt welding was designed by comparing the finite element analysis results and experimental data. This successful simulation of pulsed Nd:YAG laser welding for AISI 304 stainless steel will prove useful for determining optimal welding conditions.     

Characterization of Passive Films Formed on As-received and Sensitized AISI 304 Stainless Steel

The current research of corrosion resistance of stainless steels mainly focuses on characterization of the passive films by point defect mode and mixed-conduction model. The corrosion resistance of the passive films formed on asreceived and sensitized AISI304 stainless steel in borate bu er solution were evaluated in this paper. The degree of sensitization and corrosion resistance of AISI304 stainless steels was evaluated by double loop electrochemical potentiodynamic reactivation and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The passive films formed on the stainless steels were studied by XPS technique. It was found that as-received specimen had higher pitting corrosion potential and corrosion resistance than sensitized one. The Mott-Schottky results showed that sensitized stainless steel had more defects in the passive film than as-received one. The compositions of the passive films were mainly Cr and Fe oxides according to XPS results.     

Study on microstructure and mechanical properties of dissimilar steel joint developed using friction stir welding

In the present study, microstructure and mechanical properties of dissimilar weld of structural steel and ferritic stainless steel (FSS) plates of thickness 3 mm were investigated. The plates were butt welded by friction stir welding and defect-free welds were produced at a traverse speed of 20 mm/min and rotational speed of 508 rpm using a tungsten carbide tool. The weld joint consisted of alternate bands of both steels resembling an onion ring pattern. In the weld joint, six distinct regions were found including both the base metals. The stir zone of structural steel revealed refined grain structure of ferrite, pearlite, and martensite whereas in ferritic stainless side, highly refined ferritic grains with grain boundary martensite was observed and also confirmed by x-ray diffraction (XRD). The hardness of the weld joint varies from 186 to 572 HV. This scatter of hardness in stir zone is due to the presence of metal from both sides. The ultimate tensile and yield strengths of the transverse weld specimens was higher than the structural steel base metal whereas lower than the ferritic stainless steel, having fracture from structural steel side.     

The effect of welding parameters on fracture toughness of resistance spot-welded galvanized DP600 automotive steel sheets

The aim of this study was to evaluate the fracture toughness of resistance spot welded (RSW) lap joints of galvanized DP600 steels. RSW lap joints galvanized DP600 steel sheets were performed on spot welded in a pneumatic, phase-shift-controlled, and 0–9?kA effective weld current capable AC spot welding machine. Defect-free RSW lap joints were produced on galvanized DP600 steel sheets. Fracture toughness of RSW lap joints were calculated from the results of shearing tensile tests: the dependence of fracture toughness to welding current, welding time, and hardness of welding zone for galvanized DP600 steel sheets. According to the experimental data, the fracture toughness increases as welding current and welding time increase up to a certain value, then the fracture toughness starts to decrease. Also, it was seen that the fracture toughness varies with the hardness of the welding zone. This variation is related to welding current.     

Effect of particle size, forging and ageing on the mechanical fatigue characteristics of Al6082/SiCp metal matrix composites

Addition of inexpensive silicon carbide particulates (SiC_p) in the aluminium alloy matrix results in materials with properties non-obtainable in monolithic materials. The forging process results in improved properties as well as forms a shape of the final product. The age-hardening processes accelerate the coarse hardening process of the composites and improve strength and ductility. The size, morphology and volume fraction are the key controlling factors that control the plasticity and the thermal residual stresses in the matrix and thereby it’s mechanical and fatigue properties. This research paper focuses on the effect of particle size, forging and ageing on the mechanical and fatigue properties of the cast, forged and age-hardened aluminium 6082 (AI6082) reinforced with SiC_p. Al6082 reinforced with three different particle sizes of SiC_p (average particles size of 22, 12 and 3 µm) in the forged and ageing conditions were studied. The samples were characterised by optical microscopy, hardness, tensile and fatigue tests. The forged microstructure shows a more uniform distribution of SiC_p in the aluminium matrix. The addition of SiC_p results in improved tensile strength, yield strength and elastic constants of the composites with reduction in ductility. It also increases the fatigue strength of the composites by increasing the number of cycles required for fatigue failure of the composites for the given value of stress. The results also show considerable improvements in mechanical fatigue properties due to forging and ageing heat treatment of the metal matrix composites