Prediction of the penetration depth in laser beam welding

Three dimensional solution for the heat flow in laser beam welding with a constant moving Gaussian heat source has been analyzed. The temperature rise and cooling rate are related to the beam spot size, travel speed and laser power. As an application of this model, the theoretical predictions were compared to the experimental data in which laser conditions were arranged for carbon and AISI 316 steels as bead-on-plate welds, using a continous wave 3kW CO₂ laser with the various travel speed, beam sport size and laser power. Experimental data show a good agreement with the theoretical predictions. This analytical model can be used to determine the maximum possible penetration depth, fusion boundary, and thermal history for given sources of laser beam welding conditions.     

基于二维PSD的激光准直系统研究

提出了一种以二维位置敏感传感器(PSD)作为反馈元件来实现激光光束自动准直的设计方案,同时建立了测量控制系统的数学模型。经过测试与理论分析,激光光束的准直控制范围不大于20μm,且此准直系统具有结构简单、调节快速的特点,可以广泛用于零件形位误差检测与机械安装调试过程中快速建立光学基准。     

基于二维PSD的激光准直系统研究

提出了一种以二维位置敏感传感器（PSD）作为反馈元件来实现激光光束自动准直的设计方案,同时建立了测量控制系统的数学模型。经过测试与理论分析,激光光束的准直控制范围不大于20μm,且此准直系统具有结构简单、调节快速的特点,可以广泛用于零件形位误差检测与机械安装调试过程中快速建立光学基准。     

Direct additive laser manufacturing using gas- and water-atomised H13 tool steel powders

To date only gas-atomised tool steel powders have been used for direct laser additive manufacturing and the potential benefits of using water-atomised powders have not been explored. As the use of the process in the rapid tooling field is growing, there is a need to explore if the less expensive water-atomised materials can be realistically utilised. A comparative investigation is described, using gas- and water-atomised H13 powder deposited with a CO₂ laser and coaxial powder feed nozzle. Multiple layer wall dimensions, composition, microstructure, surface finish and hardness are related to process conditions and the causes of the observed phenomena are discussed. An energy-balance method is used to model the temperature of the powders and the results used to explain some of the effects. Results indicate that using the lower cost water-atomised powder still allows a metallurgically sound component to be built and does not significantly affect surface finish. The build rate is, however, lower and the water-atomised powder tends to produce slightly softer walls, attributable to a higher temperature during tempering of deposited material by subsequent laser passes.     

Numerical analysis of Nd:YAG pulsed laser polishing CVD self-standing diamond film

Chemical vapor deposited(CVD) diamond film has broad application foreground in high-tech fields.But polycrystalline CVD self-standing diamond thick film has rough surface and non-uniform thickness that adversely affect its extensive applications.Laser polishing is a useful method to smooth self-standing diamond film.At present,attentions have been focused on experimental research on laser polishing,but the revealing of theoretical model and the forecast of polishing process are vacant.The paper presents a finite element model to simulate and analyze the mechanism of laser polishing diamond based on laser thermal conduction theory.The experimental investigation is also carried out on Nd:YAG pulsed laser smoothing diamond thick film.The simulation results have good accordance with the results of experimental results.The temperature and thermal stress fields are investigated at different incidence angles and parameters of Nd:YAG pulsed laser.The pyramidal-like roughness of diamond thick film leads to the non-homogeneous temperature fields.The temperature at the peak of diamond film is much higher than that in the valley,which leads to the smoothing of diamond thick film.The effect of laser parameters on the surface roughness and thickness of graphite transition layer is also carried out.The results show that high power density laser makes the diamond surface rapid heating,evaporation and sublimation after its graphitization.It is also found that the good polish quality of diamond thick film can be obtained by a combination of large incident angle,moderate laser pulsed energy,large repetition rate and moderate laser pulse width.The results obtained here provide the theoretical basis for laser polishing diamond film with high efficiency and high quality.     

CO2 laser butt-welding of steel sandwich sheet composites

Steel sandwich sheets compared with conventional steel exhibit significant performance improvements such as lower density, higher specific flexural stiffness, and better sound and vibration damping characteristics. However, the main challenge for the broad industrial use is that the joining and assembling methods be used in such a way so as not to alter significantly these characteristics. In the present paper, a laser welding of steel sandwich is examined. The feasibility study of the laser butt-welding of sandwich steel sheets with a CO₂ laser beam has revealed that such an approach is possible. A theoretical model of the laser welding process is developed for the investigation of the laser beam impact on both the core and the outer steel layers of the sandwich material. The model presented is based on a novel idea for the simulation of the heat source through the finite element analysis for the estimation of the temperature distribution. Additionally, the effect on the quality of the weld, the strength of the welded sheet, and its damping characteristics are also experimentally investigated and prove that laser welding can be considered as an alternative joining process.     

覆膜砂SLS过程激光能量分布模型的建立及应用

针对具有新光束的CO_2激光器,建立了铸造覆膜砂SLS过程的激光能量分布模型,在该模型中,综合考虑了新型激光光束的光强分布特点,实际扫描过程中激光与覆膜砂的相互作用,以及扫描速度对激光能量输入的影响等因素。采用Ansys对覆膜砂SLS过程的激光能量分布模型进行计算,利用热像仪对覆膜砂选择性激光烧结过程的表面温度进行测定。经对比计算结果和测温结果,模拟计算与实际测温结果吻合良好。根据模拟计算结果所确定的工艺参数,实际制造出了具有较高精度的三维实体。覆膜砂SLS过程激光能量分布模型为激光快速成形工艺的计算机分析及优化奠定了基础。     

Theoretical and Experimental Analysis of a Laser Textured Thrust Bearing

In this article, a laser partially textured thrust bearing is theoretically and experimentally analyzed. An adiabatic model is developed in order to theoretically investigate the performances of the bearing. The bearing sample is partially textured both in radial and circumferential direction using the laser texturing process. The performance of the bearing (fluid film thickness and friction torque) is evaluated on a specially adapted test rig and the experimental results are compared with the theoretical model. A good agreement is found between the theoretical model and the experimental data. Also a comparison between a laser textured bearing and a bearing textured using the photolithographic method is presented.     

An analytical model of the laser clad geometry

In this paper an analytical approach to the laser cladding process has been developed and discussed. This approach has taken into account the process speed and feed rate of the powder being supplied for the estimation of clad geometry. The surface tension between the added material and the substrate is used primarily for the calculation of the clad characteristics. The theoretical results are discussed and compared with experimental data. The model is capable of predicting the clad width and depth with reasonable accuracy at low and medium process speeds.     

MODELING OF LASER MACHINING ON POLYMETHYL METHACRYLATE TO FABRICATE MICROFLUIDIC CHIP

The use of a CO2 laser system for fabrication of microfluidic chip on polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) is presented to reduce fabrication cost and time of chip. The grooving process of the laser system and a model for the depth of microchannels are investigated. The relations between the depth of laser-cut channels and the laser beam power, velocity or the number of passes of the beam along the same channel are evaluated. In the experiments, the laser beam power varies from 0 to 50 W, the laser beam scanning velocity varies from 0 to 1 000 mm/s and the passes vary in the range of 1 to 10 times. Based on the principle of conservation of energy, the influence of the laser beam velocity, the laser power and the number of groove passes are examined. Considering the grooving interval energy loss, a modified mathematical model has been obtained and experimental data show good agreement with the theoretical model. This approach provides a simple way of predicting groove depths. The system provides a cost alternative of the other methods and it is especially useful on research work of microfluidic prototyping due to the short cycle time of production.     

Material bead deposition with 2 + 2 ½ multi-axis machining process planning strategies with virtual verification for extruded geometry

Process planning for hybrid manufacturing, where additive operations can be interlaced with machining operations, is in its infancy. New plastic- and metal-based hybrid manufacturing systems are being developed that integrate both additive manufacturing (AM) and subtractive (machining) operations. This introduces new process planning challenges. The focus of this research is to explore process planning solution approaches when using a hybrid manufacturing approach. Concepts such as localized AM build ups, adding stock to a CAD model or section for subsequent removal, and machining an AM stock model are investigated and illustrated using virtual simulations. A case study using a hybrid laser cladding process is used to demonstrate the opportunities associated with a hybrid solution. However, unlike machining, the process characteristics from system to system vary greatly. These are portrayed via a high power, high material deposition feed rate laser cladding system. There are unique challenges associated with AM processes and hybrid manufacturing. New tools and design rules need to be developed for this manufacturing solution to reach its potential.     

Theoretical and experimental analysis of the remote welding process on thin, lap-joined AISI 304 sheets

In this study, a theoretical approach of the remote welding process has been developed and discussed. The study obtains numerically the melting boundaries of different heat source angles, based on an analytical calculation of the keyhole depth. The approach considers the dominant process parameters of the laser power, the welding speed and the inclination of the laser beam on the workpiece surface. The geometrical particularities of the beam spot, due to the different inclination of the laser beam upon the processing plane, have also been considered in a previous study of the authors. The theoretical results present good agreement when compared with experimental data obtained from a remote welding system (RWS) on lap welding of AISI 304 stainless steel, thin sheets.     

Prediction of depth of cut for single-pass laser micro-milling process using semi-analytical, ANN and GP approaches

The present study is aimed to investigate micro-milling performance of thermoplastics with different parameters, namely laser beam absorptivity, latent heat of vaporization, laser power and cutting speed. The 25-W CO₂ (CW) laser engraving machine is used for the investigation. In total 50 different combinations of laser power and cutting speed with four categories of thermoplastics, namely poly-methyl-methacrylate, poly-propylene, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene and nylon 6, are used in this study. Experimental results suggest that laser beam absorptivity, cutting power and cutting speed are the major influencing parameters on depth of cut. Theoretical model for the prediction of depth of cut in terms of material properties, cutting power and cutting speed has been proposed. Two correction parameters have been introduced in this analysis using non-linear regression method to improve the theoretical model. Comparison has been made between prediction capabilities of theoretical model, model based on multi-gene genetic programming and artificial neural network. The comparison clearly indicates that all the three models provide accurate prediction of depth of cut. The details of experimentation, model development, testing and the performance comparison are presented in this paper.     

等离子熔射成形件激光熔凝数值计算

考虑皮膜与原模（被衬）的不同传热特性，建立了有限尺寸双层板激光熔凝数学模型，模拟计算激光熔凝的热过程，着重研究了激光功率，斑,我束移动速度对等离子熔射成形件温度场分布的影响规律，所建立的最大熔凝厚度计算结果与实验基本吻合，为获得平整，光滑的熔凝层的工艺参数选择提供了理论依据。     

Powder transport model for laser cladding by lateral powder feeding: I. Powder flow field with cylindrical distribution

Powder transport ratio is defined as the mass ratio of powder particles fed into the molten pool to all powders transported in the process of laser cladding by lateral powder feeding. According to the law of mass conservation and kinematic equation in physics, a powder transport model for flow field with cylindrical distribution and a mathematical expression of powder transport ratio are proposed. For different process parameters, the cross-sectional area of the clad layer is calculated by the model. Theoretical and experimental results are compared. The variation tendency of the theoretical cross-sectional area agrees well with the experimental results. The results indicate that the powder transport model can be used for fundamental research of real powder flow field.     

Multiphysics simulation of laser–material interaction during laser powder depositon

This work reports a theoretical and numerical study of the parameters related to the process of laser powder deposition through a lateral nozzle. For this purpose, a 3D quasi-stationary finite element model was developed analytically and implemented numerically. The proposed model estimates the shape of the melt pool depending on the process parameters including scanning speed, powder mass flow, laser power, and physical properties. Also, phase transformations and physical properties (density, thermal conductivity, and specific heat) vary as function of temperature. In addition, thermo-capillary forces and their effect on fluid flow inside the melt pool are considered. The obtained set of equations coupled through the temperature variable was solved using COMSOL Multiphysics. The results are presented and compared with previously obtained experimental data, in which chromium powder was deposited, allowing validation of the model. Finally, variations at the melt pool geometry in terms of the operational parameters are analyzed. This model aims at estimation of melt pool geometry during laser powder deposition in time reasonably short to allow for predictable process control.     

纳秒级激光脉冲展宽系统的分析及应用

建立了一种纳秒级多腔式激光脉冲扩展系统.通过激光脉冲展宽,该系统可以有效降低脉冲激光的峰值功率,从而在激光燃烧诊断实验中避免激光诱导等离子体的产生,减少背景干扰,有效提高信噪比.建立了理论模型,对影响脉冲展宽的分束比、腔长以及光学腔个数等几个主要参数进行了分析,并通过数值计算实现了各参数的优化.利用建立的多腔串联式激光...     

A prototyping and microfabrication CAD/CAM tool for the excimer laser micromachining process

A CAD/CAM tool for prototyping and small-scale production of micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) devices based on the excimer laser ablation process has been developed. The system’s algorithms use the 3D geometry of a microstructure, defined as an STL file exported from a CAD model, and parameters that influence the process (laser fluence, pulse repetition frequency, number of shots per area, wall angle, stitching errors) to automatically generate a precise NC part program for the excimer laser machine. The performance of the system has been verified by NC part program generation for several 3D microstructures and subsequent machining trials. An initial stitching error of 23.4±2.2-μm wide and 3.4±1.5-μm high was observed when the overlap size between adjacent volumes was zero, when ablating 100×100-μm features in polycarbonate (PC) at a fluence of 0.5 J/cm² using a workpiece-dragging technique. When the size of the overlap was optimised by a system based on optimal process parameters determined by the Taguchi design of experiment method (DOE), and incorporated in the mask design, the maximum stitching error was reduced to 13.4±2.2-μm wide and 1.4±0.9-μm high under the same conditions. By employing a hexagonal-shaped mask with incorporated size of the image overlap, reduced horizontal-stitching errors of 2.4±0.2-μm wide and 1.4±0.2-μm high were observed. The system simplifies part program creation and is useful for excimer laser operators who currently use a tedious trial and error process to create programs and complex masks to generate microstructure parts.     

Parameter prediction in laser bending of aluminum alloy sheet

Based on the basic platform of BP neural networks, a BP network model is established to predict the bending angle in the laser bending process of an aluminum alloy sheet (1–2 mm in thickness) and to optimize laser bending parameters for bending control. The sample experimental data is used to train the BP network. The nonlinear regularities of sample data are fitted through the trained BP network; the predicted results include laser bending angles and parameters. Experimental results indicate that the prediction allowance is controlled less than 5%–8% and can provide a theoretical and experimental basis for industry purpose.     

千瓦级轴流CO2激光器设计参数的研究

本文通过较新的快速轴流CO₂激光器理论及理论模型,讨论了各主要物理参数对出光特性的影响,并提出了较佳的设计参数。