A model to predict minimum required clamp pre-loads in light of fixture–workpiece compliance

The determination of minimum required clamp pre-loads is an important process in the design of machining fixtures. This paper presents a linear, clamp pre-load (LCPL) model that can be applied to fixture–workpiece systems whose compliance is load invariant. The model considers the static deformation of the fixture–workpiece system in response to the clamping process and the machining process. Sources of compliance throughout a fixture–workpiece system are considered. The model computes the minimum required pre-loads necessary to prevent workpiece slip at the fixture–workpiece joints throughout the machining process.This paper also describes an experimental study that was used to characterize the accuracy of the LCPL model with regard to the application of a ramping external load to a fixture–workpiece system. Over the contact conditions tested, the LCPL model was observed to overestimate the minimum required clamp pre-loads by an average of 7%. This experimental study also revealed the sensitivity of the computed pre-loads to the relative compliance of the fixture elements as well as the coefficient of friction.     

Flexible multibody dynamics based fixture-workpiece analysis model for fixturing stability

The machining force and torque exerted on a workpiece vary as the cutter moves along the tool path, therefore a dynamic approach is essential for fixturing stability analysis. This paper presents a technique to dynamically model and analyze the fixture-workpiece system subjected to time-varying machining loads. Combining the advantages of FEA (Finite Element Analysis) and nonlinear rigid body dynamics, a flexible multibody dynamic model is formulated to incorporate the overall interaction (clamping forces, machining loads, and contact friction) between flexible workpiece and compliant fixture elements. Three major parameters affecting the fixturing stability, namely the magnitude, application sequence, and placement of fixturing clamps, are analyzed. Additionally, the time dependent deformation of a flexible workpiece under clamping and machining loads is estimated. A scaled engine block with the 3–2–1 fixturing scheme subjected to face milling operation is given as an example. Comparison between the simulation result and experimental data shows a reasonable agreement.     

Milling error prediction and compensation in machining of low-rigidity parts

The paper reports on a new integrated methodology for modelling and prediction of surface errors caused by deflection during machining of low-rigidity components. The proposed approach is based on identifying and modelling key processing characteristics that influence part deflection, predicting the workpiece deflection through an adaptive flexible theoretical force-FEA deflection model and providing an input for downstream decision making on error compensation. A new analytical flexible force model suitable for static machining error prediction of low-rigidity components is proposed. The model is based on an extended perfect plastic layer model integrated with a FE model for prediction of part deflection. At each computational step, the flexible force is calculated by taking into account the changes of the immersion angles of the engaged teeth. The material removal process at any infinitesimal segment of the milling cutter teeth is considered as oblique cutting, for which the cutting force is calculated using an orthogonal–oblique transformation. This study aims to increase the understanding of the causes of poor geometric accuracy by considering the impact of the machining forces on the deflection of thin-wall structures. The reported work is a part of an ongoing research for developing an adaptive machining planning environment for surface error modelling and prediction and selection of process and tool path parameters for rapid machining of complex low-rigidity high-accuracy parts.     

Off-line modelling and planning of optimal clamping forces for an intelligent fixturing system

An intelligent fixturing system (IFS) for machining aims to adaptively adjust the clamping forces to achieve minimum deformation of the workpiece according to the cutter position and the cutting forces. This paper presents the concept, architecture, control scheme, models and methodologies for an IFS. Using off-line simulations and on-line experimental verifications, the performance of the proposed IFS is evaluated and verified. As adaptive clamping forces appropriate to the dynamic machining environment are employed, the IFS offers higher quality of machined parts and greater robustness to disturbances. This system is suitable for application in high-precision machining environment as well as flexible manufacturing systems (FMS).     

Stability-based spindle speed control during flexible workpiece high-speed milling

High-speed machining (HSM) is a technology used to increase productivity and reduce production costs. The prediction of stable cutting regions represents an important issue for the machining process, which may otherwise give rise to spindle, cutter and part damage. In this paper, the dynamic interaction of a spindle-tool set and a thin-walled workpiece is analysed by a finite element approach for the purpose of stability prediction.The gyroscopic moment of the spindle rotor and the speed-dependent bearing stiffness are taken into account in the spindle-tool set finite element model and induce speed-dependent dynamic behaviour. A dedicated thin-walled workpiece is designed whose dynamic behaviour interacts with the spindle-tool set. During the machining of this flexible workpiece, chatter vibration occurs at some stages of machining, depending on the cutting conditions and also on the tool position along the machined thin wall.By coupling the dynamic behaviour of the machine and the workpiece, respectively, dependent on the spindle speed and the relative position of both the systems, an accurate stability lobes diagram is elaborated.Finally, the proposed approach indicates that spindle speed regulation is a necessary constraint to guarantee optimum stability during machining of thin-walled structures.     

Quick 3D Modeling of Machining Environment by Means of On-machine Stereo Vision with Digital Decomposition

The paper describes a three dimensional vision-based modeling system, which can efficiently and accurately construct solid models of a machining environment including the workpiece setup with jigs and fixtures on the machine table. The unique methods of the object recognition with various key technologies have been developed based on the simultaneous real and virtual stereo image processing. Since the constructed model accurately matches with the real setup, real time NC program verifications can be performed for 100% collision-free machining simulation. The prototyped system has been successfully verified by implementation on several real machining systems.     

Optimal spindle speed determination for vibration reduction during ball-end milling of flexible details

In the paper a method of optimal spindle speed determination for vibration reduction during ball-end milling of flexible details is proposed. In order to reduce vibration level, an original procedure of the spindle speed optimisation, based on the Liao–Young criterion [1], is suggested. As the result, an optimal, constant spindle speed value is determined. For this purpose, non-stationary computational model of machining process is defined. As a result of modelling, a hybrid system is described. This model consists of following subsystems, i.e. stationary model of one-side-supported flexible workpiece (modal subsystem), non-stationary discrete model of ball-end mill (structural subsystem) and conventional contact point between tool and workpiece (connective subsystem). The method requires identification of some natural frequencies of stationary modal subsystem. To determine them, appropriate modal experiments have to be performed on the machine tool, just before machining. Examples of vibration surveillance during cutting process on two high speed milling machines Mikron VCP 600 and Alcera Gambin 120CR are illustrated.     

An experimental evaluation of coefficients of static friction of common workpiece–fixture element pairs

Most machining fixtures utilize clamping forces and friction at fixture–workpiece joints to help prevent the workpiece from slipping out of the fixture during machining. The magnitudes of the clamping forces required are a direct function of the coefficients of static friction at the joints. Recently, analytical methods have been developed to predict minimum clamping forces. However, these methods require accurate estimates of the friction coefficients.One source of friction data are handbooks. However, these data are typically listed relative to the materials of the contacting elements and are otherwise completely generalized. This paper will illustrate that the coefficient of static friction for typical fixture–workpiece joints is not a simple function of the workpiece materials. Instead it is also a function of factors such as fixture element geometry, workpiece surface topography, clamping forces, the presence or absence of cutting fluids, and normal joint rigidity.     

Study of the correlation between surface roughness and cutting vibrations to develop an on-line roughness measuring technique in hard turning

Surface roughness is one of the important factors in all areas of tribology and in evaluating the quality of a machining operation. In order to achieve computer controlled machining in a flexible manufacturing system, a technique is needed for the on-line, real-time monitoring of each machining process parameter that affects surface roughness. As the first step in developing such an algorithm, research on the correlation between surface roughness and cutting vibration is reported in this paper. The algorithm utilizes the relative cutting vibrations between tool and workpiece, which are measured through an inductance pickup and filtered by an analog bandpass filter for a specific vibrational component. The cutting vibration signals of a specific :frequency are superimposed onto the kinematic roughness, which is calculated by the tool edge radius and feed rate. Experimental results show good correlation between the simulated roughness obtained using the proposed algorithm and the roughness actually measured with a surface profilometer     

100 MN双动铝挤压机主柱塞的机械加工工艺

介绍了国内首台万吨铝挤压机关键零部件主柱塞的加工工艺 ,以及在大型卧式车床上加工大直径、高光洁度阶梯深孔、盲孔的加工方法及工艺流程和所需工装设计等。     

Prediction of workpiece dynamics and its effects on chatter stability in milling

The workpiece dynamics affect stability in machining of flexible parts. However, it is not a straightforward task to include it in the analysis since the workpiece dynamics continuously change due to mass removal and variation of the cutter contact. In this paper, a methodology for prediction of in-process workpiece dynamics is presented, which is based on a structural dynamic modification using the FE model of the workpiece. The cutter location (CL) file is used to determine the removed elements at each tool location along a cycle. The proposed approach is demonstrated on example cases, and simulations are verified through experiments.     

Monitoring and control of the micro wire-EDM process

A new pulse discriminating and control system has been developed for process monitoring and control in micro wire-EDM. The pulse discriminating and control system identifies four major gap states classified as open circuit, normal spark, arc discharge and short circuit based on the characteristics of gap voltage waveform. The effect of pulse interval, machining feedrate and workpiece thickness on the variations of the proportion of normal spark, arc discharge and short circuit in the total sparks (defined as normal ratio, arc ratio and short ratio, respectively) were investigated. It is found that a long pulse interval results in an increase of the short ratio under a constant feedrate machining condition. A high machining feedrate or an increase of workpiece height results in an increase of the short ratio. To achieve the stability of the machining operation, a control strategy is proposed by regulating the pulse interval of each spark in real-time according to the identified gap states. Experimental results indicate that the developed pulse discriminating and control system can significantly reduce the arc discharge and short sparking frequency as well as achieve stable machining under the condition where the instability of machining operation is prone to occur.     

Dimensional errors in longitudinal turning based on the unified generalized mechanics of cutting approach.: Part I: Three-dimensional theory

During the machining of a part, a new surface is generated together with its dimensional deviations. These deviations are due to the presence of several phenomena (workpiece deflection under strong cutting forces, vibration of the machine tool, material spring-back, and so on) that occur during machining. Each elementary phenomenon results in an elementary machining error. Consequently, the accuracy of the manufactured workpiece depends on the precision of the manufacturing process, which it may be controlled or predicted.The first part of this work presents a new model to evaluate machining accuracy and part dimensional errors in bar turning. A model to simulate workpiece dimensional errors in longitudinal turning due to deflection of the tool, workpiece holder and workpiece is shown. The proposed model calculates the real cutting force according to the Unified Generalized Mechanics of Cutting approach proposed by Armarego, which allows one to take into account the three-dimensional nature (3D) of the cutting mechanism. Therefore, the model developed takes advantage of the real workpiece deflection, which does not lie in a plane parallel to the tool reference plane, and of the real 3D cutting force, which varies along the tool path due to change in the real depth of cut. In the first part of the work the general theory of the proposed approach is presented and discussed for 3D features. In the second part the proposed approach is applied to real cases that are mostly used in practice. Moreover, some experimental tests are carried out in order to validate the developed model: good agreement between numerical and experimental results is found.     

FLOW STRESS MODEL FOR HARD MACHINING OF AISI H13 WORK TOOL STEEL

1. Introduction The manufacturing process of dies/molds is one of the most demanding tasks in manufacturing en- gineering. Complex workpiece geometries, high material hardness as well as short lead time are among the main obstacles. At the same time, quality requirements become more and more important due to in- tensified competition and quality awareness. Traditionally, the production of molds/dies generally in- volves conventional machining in the annealed (soft) state, followed by heat trea…     

Determination of minimum clamping forces for dynamically stable fixturing

This paper presents a model-based framework for determining the minimum required clamping forces that ensure the dynamic stability of a fixtured workpiece during machining. The framework consists of a dynamic model for simulating the vibratory behavior of the fixtured workpiece subjected to time- and space-varying machining loads, a geometric model for capturing the continuously changing geometry and inertia of the fixture–workpiece system during machining, a static model for determining the localized fixture–workpiece contact deformations due to clamping, a model for checking the dynamic stability of the fixtured workpiece, and a model for determining the optimal set of clamping forces that satisfies the stability criteria for a given machining operation. The clamping force optimization problem is formulated as a bilevel nonlinear programming problem and solved using the Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) technique featuring computational intelligence. A simulation example solved using the developed approach reveals that the minimum required clamping forces for dynamically stable fixturing are significantly affected by the fixture–workpiece system dynamics and its continuous change during machining due to the material removal effect.     

基于模态分析的高速铣削主轴转速选择

分析了高速铣削的特点以及切削加工中的振动现象,研究了高速切削和普通切削中的工件振动对加工精度的影响程度,提出了在高速铣削情形下工件振动会影响加工精度的假设。然后采用振动力学中的谐响应方法分析了铣削加工中工件振动的简化模型,研究了工件在刀具作用力下的振动情形;并通过有限元分析软件进行实例仿真,结果表明在高速切削情况下工件的振动会影响要求较高的加工质量。最后,给出了利用模态分析来优化主轴转速的方法,为高速切削情况下减小振动、提高加工质量提供了一种途径。     

Modeling of minimum uncut chip thickness in micro machining of aluminum

Micro mechanical machining operations can fabricate miniaturized components from a wide range of engineering materials; however, there are several challenges during the operations that can cause dimensional inaccuracies and low productivity. In order to select optimal machining parameters, the material removal behavior during micro machining operations needs to be understood and implemented in models. The presence of the tool edge radius in micro machining, which is comparable in size to the uncut chip thickness, introduces a minimum uncut chip thickness (MUCT) under which the material is not removed but ploughed, resulting in increased machining forces that affect the surface integrity of the workpiece. This paper investigates the MUCT of rounded-edge tools. Analytical models based on identifying the stagnant point of the workpiece material during the machining have been proposed. Based on the models, the MUCT is found to be functions of the edge radius and friction coefficient, which is dependent on the tool geometry and properties of the workpiece material. The necessary parameters for the model are obtained experimentally from orthogonal cutting tests using a rounded-edge tool. The minimum uncut chip thickness (MUCT) is then verified with experimental tests using an aluminum workpiece.     

Experimental determination of the friction coefficient on the workpiece-fixture contact surface in workholding applications

Surface flatness, geometric integrity and micro-surface finish characteristics are crucial for automotive industry to properly seal joints, reduce leakage and consequently increasing engines efficiency and reducing emissions. Optimum fixture layout is a key element in achieving this goal. Machining of flexible parts impose further challenges to the selection of a proper fixture scenario.Workpiece motion arising from localized elastic deformation at the workpiece/fixture contacts due to machining and clamping forces significantly affect the workpiece location accuracy and hence the machined part quality. The tangential friction force plays an important role in fixture configuration design as it can be utilized to reduce the number of fixture components, thereby the workpiece features accessibility to machining operations and providing a damping mechanism to dissipate input energy from machining forces out of the workpiece/fixture system.Although the literature is full of research on friction and its application, it lacks research that relates to the contact found in workpiece/fixture systems. This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation of the workpiece/fixture contact characteristics.     

Compact machining module for laser chemical manufacturing

The size of machines for the manufacture of micro-components commonly stands in gross disproportion to the component size. The achievable accuracy is limited by inaccuracies of mechanical positioning elements and external disturbances. Micro-machining of metals can be realised in manifold ways by laser processes. In this paper, a compact module for laser chemical processing using continuous wave laser radiation is presented. For the laser-induced chemical machining the material removal is a result of thermochemical reactions between an etchant and the surface of a metallic workpiece at low laser power densities. Laser-induced chemical machining results in improved surface quality of the machined workpiece and it also avoids stress and strain of the material. Through the use of a micro-mirror array (DMD) for flexible beam shaping a 2-dimensional machining of the workpiece is possible. The laser chemical machining method now allow for the first time to connect the DMD technology with laser-based micro-machining for compaction of the machining module.     

Modelling the machining dynamics of peripheral milling

The machining dynamics involves the dynamic cutting forces, the structural modal analysis of a cutting system, the vibrations of the cutter and workpiece, and their correlation. This paper presents a new approach modelling and predicting the machining dynamics for peripheral milling. First, a machining dynamics model is developed based on the regenerative vibrations of the cutter and workpiece excited by the dynamic cutting forces, which are mathematically modelled and experimentally verified by the authors [Liu, X., Cheng, K., Webb, D., Luo, X.-C. Improved dynamic cutting force model in peripheral milling—Part 1: Theoretical model and simulation. Int. J. Adv Manufact Tech, 2002, 20, 631–638; Liu, X., Cheng, K., Webb, D., Longstaff, A. P., Widiyarto, H. M., Jiang, X.-Q., Blunt, L., Ford, D. Improved dynamic cutting force model in peripheral milling—Part 2: Experimental verification and prediction. Int. J. Adv Manufact Tech, 2004, 24, 794–805]. Then, the mechanism of surface generation is analysed and formulated based on the geometry and kinematics of the cutter. Thereafter a simulation model of the machining dynamics is implemented using Simulink. In order to verify the effectiveness of the approach, the transfer functions of a typical cutting system in a vertical CNC machine centre were measured in both normal and feed directions by an instrumented hammer and accelerometers. Then a set of well-designed cutting trials was carried out to record and analyse the dynamic cutting forces, the vibrations of the spindle head and workpiece, and the surface roughness and waviness. Corresponding simulations of the machining processes of these cutting trials based on the machining dynamics model are investigated and the simulation results are analysed and compared to the measurements. It is shown that the proposed machining dynamics model can well predict the dynamic cutting forces, the vibrations of the cutter and workpiece. There is a reasonable agreement between the measured and predicted roughness/waviness of the machined surface. Therefore the proposed approach is proven to be a feasible and practical approach analysing machining dynamics and surface roughness/waviness for shop floor applications.