Functional gradients and heterogeneities in biological materials: Design principles,functions, and bioinspired applications

Living organisms have ingeniously evolved functional gradients and heterogeneities to create high-performance biological materials from a fairly limited choice of elements and compounds during long-term evolution and selection. The translation of such design motifs into synthetic materials offers a spectrum of feasible pathways towards unprecedented properties and functionalities that are favorable for practical uses in a variety of engineering and medical fields. Here, we review the basic design forms and principles of naturally-occurring gradients in biological materials and discuss the functions and benefits that they confer to organisms. These gradients are fundamentally associated with the variations in local chemical compositions/constituents and structural characteristics involved in the arrangement, distribution, dimensions and orientations of the building units. The associated interfaces in biological materials invariably demonstrate localized gradients and a variety of gradients are generally integrated over multiple length-scales within the same material. The bioinspired design and applications of synthetic functionally graded materials that mimic their natural paradigms are revisited and the emerging processing techniques needed to replicate the biological gradients are described. It is expected that in the future bioinspired gradients and heterogeneities will play an increasingly important role in the development of high-performance materials for more challenging applications.     

Toughening mechanisms in bioinspired multilayered materials

Outstanding mechanical properties of biological multilayered materials are strongly influenced by nanoscale features in their structure. In this study, mechanical behaviour and toughening mechanisms of abalone nacre-inspired multilayered materials are explored. In nacre''s structure, the organic matrix, pillars and the roughness of the aragonite platelets play important roles in its overall mechanical performance. A micromechanical model for multilayered biological materials is proposed to simulate their mechanical deformation and toughening mechanisms. The fundamental hypothesis of the model is the inclusion of nanoscale pillars with near theoretical strength (σ_th ~ E/30). It is also assumed that pillars and asperities confine the organic matrix to the proximity of the platelets, and, hence, increase their stiffness, since it has been previously shown that the organic matrix behaves more stiffly in the proximity of mineral platelets. The modelling results are in excellent agreement with the available experimental data for abalone nacre. The results demonstrate that the aragonite platelets, pillars and organic matrix synergistically affect the stiffness of nacre, and the pillars significantly contribute to the mechanical performance of nacre. It is also shown that the roughness induced interactions between the organic matrix and aragonite platelet, represented in the model by asperity elements, play a key role in strength and toughness of abalone nacre. The highly nonlinear behaviour of the proposed multilayered material is the result of distributed deformation in the nacre-like structure due to the existence of nano-asperities and nanopillars with near theoretical strength. Finally, tensile toughness is studied as a function of the components in the microstructure of nacre.     

Energy absorbent natural materials and bioinspired design strategies: A review

Some of the most remarkable materials in terms of energy absorption and impact resistance are not found through human processing but in nature. Solutions to the continuing problems of improved composite technologies may lie in replicating naturally occurring systems. In this review, we examine several mammalian structural materials: bones (bovine femur and elk antler), teeth and tusks from various taxa, horns from the desert big horn sheep, and equine hooves. We establish the relationships between structural and mechanical properties for these materials, with an emphasis on energy absorption mechanisms. We also identify the energy absorbing strategies utilized in these materials. Implementation of these bioinspired design strategies can serve as a basis for the design of new energy absorbent synthetic composite materials. Synthetic constituent materials arranged according to the principles outlined in this work will achieve the same synergistic effects as nature and no longer be confined to the limitations imposed by a mixture law.     

Tunable structural color in organisms and photonic materials for design of bioinspired materials

In this paper, the key topics of tunable structural color in biology and material science are overviewed. Color in biology is considered for selected groups of tropical fish, octopus, squid and beetle. It is caused by nanoplates in iridophores and varies with their spacing, tilting angle and refractive index. These examples may provide valuable hints for the bioinspired design of photonic materials. 1D multilayer films and 3D colloidal crystals with tunable structural color are overviewed from the viewpoint of advanced materials. The tunability of structural color by swelling and strain is demonstrated on an example of opal composites.     

Tunable structural color in organisms and photonic materials for design of bioinspired materials

Abstract

In this paper, the key topics of tunable structural color in biology and material science are overviewed. Color in biology is considered for selected groups of tropical fish, octopus, squid and beetle. It is caused by nanoplates in iridophores and varies with their spacing, tilting angle and refractive index. These examples may provide valuable hints for the bioinspired design of photonic materials. 1D multilayer films and 3D colloidal crystals with tunable structural color are overviewed from the viewpoint of advanced materials. The tunability of structural color by swelling and strain is demonstrated on an example of opal composites.     

Biological materials: Structure and mechanical properties

Most natural (or biological) materials are complex composites whose mechanical properties are often outstanding, considering the weak constituents from which they are assembled. These complex structures, which have risen from hundreds of million years of evolution, are inspiring Materials Scientists in the design of novel materials.Their defining characteristics, hierarchy, multifunctionality, and self-healing capability, are illustrated. Self-organization is also a fundamental feature of many biological materials and the manner by which the structures are assembled from the molecular level up. The basic building blocks are described, starting with the 20 amino acids and proceeding to polypeptides, polysaccharides, and polypeptides-saccharides. These, on their turn, compose the basic proteins, which are the primary constituents of ‘soft tissues’ and are also present in most biominerals. There are over 1000 proteins, and we describe only the principal ones, with emphasis on collagen, chitin, keratin, and elastin. The ‘hard’ phases are primarily strengthened by minerals, which nucleate and grow in a biomediated environment that determines the size, shape and distribution of individual crystals. The most important mineral phases are discussed: hydroxyapatite, silica, and aragonite.Using the classification of Wegst and Ashby, the principal mechanical characteristics and structures of biological ceramics, polymer composites, elastomers, and cellular materials are presented. Selected systems in each class are described with emphasis on the relationship between their structure and mechanical response. A fifth class is added to this: functional biological materials, which have a structure developed for a specific function: adhesion, optical properties, etc.An outgrowth of this effort is the search for bioinspired materials and structures. Traditional approaches focus on design methodologies of biological materials using conventional synthetic materials. The new frontiers reside in the synthesis of bioinspired materials through processes that are characteristic of biological systems; these involve nanoscale self-assembly of the components and the development of hierarchical structures. Although this approach is still in its infancy, it will eventually lead to a plethora of new materials systems as we elucidate the fundamental mechanisms of growth and the structure of biological systems.     

新型仿生微纳米界面微量流体输运调控材料

生物表面从微纳米层次上已提供给人类一种多级次梯度结构的协同效应机制,并展现出控制动态浸润性及液体传输的独特能力。基于这种机制,设计了各种仿生的结构,开发了制备仿生材料的新技术与方法。并将仿生理念引入到材料的制备中,通过利用常见的高分子材料、响应高分子材料、掺杂的有机物/无机物复合材料,可控制备了一系列新型一、二维度仿生微纳米界面材料。这些新型仿生微纳米界面材料从微、纳及宏观层次上体现了优越的浸润性调控功能,如液滴驱动、水收集、防覆冰等,其在微流控制、淡水采集、雾水工程、热量传递、浮尘过滤等领域有重要的应用前景。     

自旋电子学功能材料

巨磁电阻效应的发现开拓了磁电子学的新领域,20世纪90年代,磁电子学得到迅速的发展,并在应用上取得显著的经济效益与巨大的社会效应,本世纪初,研究的重点已转移到半导体自旋电子学的新方向,并已取得重要的进展.本文将结合我们科研组的研究工作,概述从磁电子学到半导体自旋电子学材料的发展,重点介绍稀磁半导体材料研究的进展.     

Biological effects of nanoparticulate materials

A range of morphologically nanoparticulate materials including Ag, NiO, TiO₂, multiwall carbon nanotubes, and chrysotile asbestos have been characterized by transmission electron microscopy. All but the TiO₂ (anatase and rutile) were observed to exhibit some cytotoxicity at concentrations of 5 μg/ml for a murine macrophage cell line as a respiratory response model. Silver exhibits interesting systemic differences for animal and human toxicity, especially in light of its nanoparticulate materials, and should be avoided even if there is no detectable in vitro cytotoxic response, as a prudent approach to their technological applications.     

Functional materials for rechargeable batteries

There is an ever-growing demand for rechargeable batteries with reversible and efficient electrochemical energy storage and conversion. Rechargeable batteries cover applications in many fields, which include portable electronic consumer devices, electric vehicles, and large-scale electricity storage in smart or intelligent grids. The performance of rechargeable batteries depends essentially on the thermodynamics and kinetics of the electrochemical reactions involved in the components (i.e., the anode, cathode, electrolyte, and separator) of the cells. During the past decade, extensive efforts have been dedicated to developing advanced batteries with large capacity, high energy and power density, high safety, long cycle life, fast response, and low cost. Here, recent progress in functional materials applied in the currently prevailing rechargeable lithium-ion, nickel-metal hydride, lead acid, vanadium redox flow, and sodium-sulfur batteries is reviewed. The focus is on research activities toward the ionic, atomic, or molecular diffusion and transport; electron transfer; surface/interface structure optimization; the regulation of the electrochemical reactions; and the key materials and devices for rechargeable batteries.     

Functional hetero-interfaces in atomically thin materials

Interfaces are often crucial determinants of the physicochemical properties of a material. As a result, the rational production and engineering of heterogeneities, and the resulting interfaces, can enhance the functionality of a material system. This is especially true of two dimensional (2D) materials, which are only a few atoms thick and thus sensitive to small perturbations of their surroundings. As a result, 2D materials and their heterostructures have been recently modified to function as catalysts, photodetectors, chemical sensors, memory, logic devices, single photon emitters, and more. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of functional interfaces in few-layered chalcogenide 2D systems, and address the following topics: The classification of interfaces by dimensionality and electronic structure, methods of creating 2D interfaces, characterization techniques and related challenges, applications of interfacial engineering in 2D systems, and finally a perspective on the future of this rapidly advancing field of study.     

Functional soft materials from metallopolymers and metallosupramolecular polymers

Synthetic polymers containing metal centres are emerging as an interesting and broad class of easily processable materials with properties and functions that complement those of state-of-the-art organic macromolecular materials. A diverse range of different metal centres can be harnessed to tune macromolecular properties, from transition- and main-group metals to lanthanides. Moreover, the linkages that bind the metal centres can vary almost continuously from strong, essentially covalent bonds that lead to irreversible or 'static' binding of the metal to weak and labile, non-covalent coordination interactions that allow for reversible, 'dynamic' or 'metallosupramolecular', binding. Here we review recent advances and challenges in the field and illustrate developments towards applications as emissive and photovoltaic materials; as optical limiters; in nanoelectronics, information storage, nanopatterning and sensing; as macromolecular catalysts and artificial enzymes; and as stimuli-responsive materials. We focus on materials in which the metal centres provide function; although they can also play a structural role, systems where this is solely their purpose have not been discussed.     

Peptide Self-Assembly for Crafting Functional Biological Materials

Self-assembling, peptide-based scaffolds are frontrunners in the search for biomaterials with widespread impact in regenerative medicine. The inherent biocompatibility and cell signaling capabilities of peptides, in combination with control of secondary structure, has led to the development of a broad range of functional materials with potential for many novel therapies. More recently, membranes formed through complexation of peptide nanostructures with natural biopolymers have led to the development of hierarchically-structured constructs with potentially far-reaching applications in biology and medicine. In this review, we highlight recent advances in peptide-based gels and membranes, including work from our group and others. Specifically, we discuss the application of peptide-based materials in the regeneration of bone and enamel, cartilage, and the central nervous system, as well as the transplantation of islets, wound-healing, cardiovascular therapies, and treatment of erectile dysfunction after prostatectomy.     

仿生与生物启发膜的研究进展

仿生与生物启发的思想和策略在众多基础与工程科学领域取得了重要进展。研究者们通过借鉴和模仿自然界中生物材料多样的组成、精巧的结构、温和的形成过程以及强大的功能,设计制备了多种高性能膜材料,并将其应用于水处理、气体分离、有机小分子液体混合物分离等领域,显示出良好的应用前景。仿生和生物启发膜主要是以细胞膜、荷叶和贻贝等为仿生原型,以生物矿化、生物黏合和自组装等为工具,以绿色、高效、节能为目标,在资源、能源高效利用和可持续发展等方面会发挥越来越大的作用,并逐步发展成为膜和膜过程领域的重要分支。本文将对仿生和生物启发膜的研究进展进行简要总结,重点介绍抗污染膜、杂化膜和复合膜的制备与应用。     

生物性包装材料的现状与发展前景

随着包装工业的迅速壮大,包装材料获得了长足的发展,各式各样的包装材料层出不穷。然而,基于可持续发展战略的考虑,人们对产品包装的要求越来越高,不仅要求包装外表新颖美观,还要求包装材料无污染,易分解。因此,生物性包装材料受到了越来越多业界人士的广泛关注。本文从生物性包装材料发展趋势出发,分析了生物性包装材料产生的必然性,明确了生物性包装材料的基本定义与分类,介绍了几种生物性包装材料的制作流程及在现实生活中的应用。