Analytical characterisation and production of wool wax from Akkaraman and Morkaraman sheep's wool

The analytical characterisation and production of wool wax from Akkaraman and Morkaraman sheep in the East Anatolien region of Turkey have been investigated. It was shown that the analytical characteristics of Akkaraman and Morkaraman wool waxes differ only slightly from other wool waxes. Therefore, from a quality point of view, wool waxes obtained from this work can be used for the same purposes as wool waxes produced from different varieties of sheep.     

Dyeing properties of textiles by Turkish hazelnut (Corylus colurna): leaves,coat, shell and dice

Turkey has a great number of hazelnut trees that possess nutritious components. However, only the inside part of the hazelnut is used as a nutrient, while the rest of it is waste. This study suggests that the waste parts of the Turkish hazelnut could be used as a natural dye for dyeing textile fabrics. The dyeing properties of the leaves, coat, shell and dice of the hazelnut were studied on wool, cotton and viscose fabric by using three different mordants: copper sulphate, iron sulphate and aluminium sulphate. The selected dyed fibre sample surfaces were observed using a scanning electron microscope. The colour strength (K/S), light, washing, rubbing, and perspiration fastness levels of the dyed fabrics were investigated. The experimental natural dyeing results indicate that waste hazelnut‐based products can be used as a natural dye for textile coloration.     

Whiter wool from fleece to fabric

The natural cream colour and low photostability of Merino wool are impediments that affect the wool’s competitiveness over a wide range of apparel and interior textile products. In particular, these two properties need improvement if the wool is to match the performance of cotton and synthetics in the expanding market for trans‐seasonal knitwear. The strategy adopted by the Cooperative Research Centre (CRC) for Sheep Industry Innovation is to improve the whiteness of clean wool by genetic selection and to maintain whiteness through processing by developing a minimum‐colour‐impact route from fleece to fabric. Recent studies on the ‘Information Nucleus’ flocks established by the Cooperative Research Centre have confirmed the high heritability of clean wool colour and shown for the first time that photostability is moderately heritable using data from a new photostability test method. A pilot‐scale commercial processing trial has shown that significant improvements in the whiteness of knitted products (up to 40 CIE Ganz units) can be achieved by selecting white fleece wools and optimising the processing route to avoid stages that may cause yellowing.     

Acid–base and dyeing properties of Nigerian Merino,Yankasa, and Merino–Yankasa crossbred wools

The acid–base titration curves of three wools, Merino, Yankasa, and a ?–? Merino–Yankasa crossbred wool, grown in Nigeria, were measured at 25°C in the presence of varying amounts of sodium chloride. Amino acid analysis was carried out on these wools and correlated with the acid–base properties. The isoionic point and titration curves of Merino and the crossbred wool are similar, while those of Yanakasa are somewhat different. The acid–base behavior was interpreted by the Gibbs–Donnan treatment for the acid titrations and the pK₀¹ values for the carboxyl groups obtained, showing the existence of normal and salt-linked carboxyl groups in these wools. Dyeing tests with acidic and basic dyes have shown that the crossbred wool responds almost as well as Merino. Together with the similarity of its mechanical properties, it seems that this crossbred wool is suitable for all the textile applications for which Merino wool is normally preferred.     

Natural functionalisation of a traditional textile “Ehram”

This study is focused on the natural functionalisation of a traditional woven fabric called “Ehram”. Which is a wool based woven fabric constituted from wool yarns that are originally coloured and used in different cities of the Eastern Anatolian Region, Turkey. Because these fabrics were originally coloured (pigmented), the study aimed to functionalise them with minimal colour changes from their original colour. For this aim; lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) which is also a natural source of pleasant odour was used in finishing of Ehram. The colour changes by the application of the lavender on Ehram and the benefits that come out from the use of lavender were then analysed and presented in the study. In this respect, antibacterial activities (against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli) of dyed samples were tested within the scope of the study. In addition, colour measurements (K/S and CIE L*a*b* C* and h^o) and FTIR (Fourier-transform infrared) microspectroscopy analyses of dyed fabric samples were made and microscope images were taken. It was observed that lavender with a copper-based mordanting agent can present antibacterial activity against S. aureus and E. coli in Ehram.     

Continuous dyeing of wool fabric containing polyamide fibre and modified by plasma glow discharge

Treatment with low-temperature plasma is one of the most economical and effective methods of modifying the surface of different materials. The continuous (pad-steam) method of dyeing wool fabric containing 10% polyamide fibre (capron) was investigated. Samples dyed by the continuous method were almost the same as samples dyed with the intermittent method with respect to resistance to dry and wet friction and perspiration. Dyeing worsted fabric with a low polyamide fibre content undergoing plasma chemical treatment with the continuous method is thus expedient, since it allows obtaining uniform coloring and is economically advantageous. __________ Translated from Khimicheskie Volokna, No. 2, pp. 44–47, March–April, 2008.     

Phenolic profiles of Turkish olives and olive oils

Phenolic compound distribution of Turkish olive cultivars and their matching olive oils together with the influence of growing region were investigated. One hundred and one samples of olives from 18 cultivars were collected during two crop years from west, south and south‐east regions of Turkey. The olives were processed to oils and both olive and olive oil samples were evaluated for their phenolic compound distribution. The results have shown that main phenolics of Turkish olives were tyrosol, oleuropein, p‐coumaric acid, verbascoside, luteolin 7‐O‐glucoside, rutin, trans cinnamic acid, luteolin, apigenin, cyanidin 3‐O‐glucoside and cyanidin 3‐O‐rutinoside. Oleuropein and trans cinnamic acid were present in higher amounts among all phenolics. Principal component analyses showed that the growing region did not have drastic effect on phenolic profile of olives. The major phenolic compounds of olive oils were tyrosol, syringic acid, p‐coumaric acid, luteolin‐7‐O‐glucoside, trans cinnamic acid, luteolin and apigenin. Luteolin is a predominant phenolic compound in almost all oil samples. Total phenol concentrations of Southeast Anatolian oils were found to be lower than those of the other regions.     

Characterization of Turkish Virgin Olive Oils Produced from Early Harvest Olives

Olives were collected from various districts of Turkey (North and South Aegean sub-region, Bursa-Akhisar, South East Anatolia region) harvested over seven (2001–2007) seasons. The aim of this study was to characterize the chemical profiles of the oils derived from single variety Turkish olives including Ayvalik, Memecik, Gemlik, Erkence, Nizip Yaglik and Uslu. The olive oils were extracted by super press and three phase centrifugation from early harvest olives. Chosen quality indices included free fatty acid content (FFA), peroxide value (PV) and spectrophotometric characteristics in the ultraviolet (UV) region. According to the FFA results, 46% (11 out of 24 samples) were classified as extra virgin olive oils; whereas using the results of PV and UV, over 83% (over 19 of the 24 samples) had the extra virgin olive oil classification. Other measured parameters included oil stability (oxidative stability, chlorophyll pigment, pheophytin-α), cis–trans fatty acid composition and color index. Oxidative stability among oils differed whereas the cis–trans fatty acid values were within the national and international averages. Through the application of two multivariate statistical methods, Principal component and hierarchical analyses, early harvest virgin olive oil samples were classified according to the geographical locations categorized in terms of fatty acid profiles. Such statistical clustering gave rise to defined groups. These data provide evidence of the variation in virgin olive oil quality, especially early harvest and cis–trans isomers of fatty acid profiles from the diverse agronomic conditions in the olive growing regions of Turkey.     

Molecular mobility in wool fibers as determined from nuclear magnetic resonance studies

The mobility of protons in wool samples of Lincoln, Chokla, and Merino, equilibrated to various moisture contents in the range of 0–98% relative humidity (RH), have been studied by pulsed nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) technique. Peak height and peak width were determined from absorption and derivative curves and the relaxation times T₁ and T₂ were determined from relaxation curves. The mobility increases with increase in moisture content. Among the three wools, the mobility was high in Merino as compared to the other two wools. The differences in the measured mobilities were related to structural and morphological differences in the three wools. The present analysis suggests that water in wool has at least three different associations, each with a different binding energy.     

Biochemical Characterization of Turkish Extra Virgin Olive Oils from Six Different Olive Varieties of Identical Growing Conditions

Extra virgin olive oils were extracted from six different major olive cultivars (Gemlik, Ayvalik, Domat, Akhisar, Memecik, Arbequina) cultivated in the Aegean region of Turkey. Fatty acid, sterol and tocopherol compositions were analyzed and the results were compared by multivariate statistical analysis. Olive samples were collected from the same orchard in order to limit the contribution of parameters such as climate, soil quality and agricultural practices to the total variance of chemical composition of olive oils. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that cultivars can be clearly distinguished on the basis of fatty acid and sterol composition. It is of interest to note that palmitoleic acid content of Arbequina, a Spanish cultivar, is significantly (p < 0.05) higher than the local Turkish cultivars in question and it is the only olive sample whose palmitoleic acid concentration is higher than that of the stearic acid concentration, exhibiting a divergent composition from the local Turkish cultivars. β‐Sitosterol and Δ5‐avenasterol contents of the oils are significantly correlated (r = ?0.989, p < 0.05) and this results in a discriminative axis on the PCA loading plot. Tocopherol composition was relatively insufficient in discriminating the olive varieties. Regarding tocopherol compositions Gemlik cultivar is distinguished from other cultivars with its γ‐tocopherol content, which is in average two times higher than that of other cultivars. The result of the present compositional study provides important data which can be used for olive oil authenticity studies in Turkey.     

The colour and fastness of natural saffron

Cotton and wool fabrics have been dyed with the aqueous extract of saffron containing α-crocin as the main colorant species. The dyeings were carried out with and without metal salts as mordants. The wash and light fastness of the dyed fabrics was studied. The colour of the fabrics was investigated in terms of CIE L* C* H* values.     

Flame retardant finishing of cotton fleece fabric: Part V. Phosphorus‐containing maleic acid oligomers

The high flammability of cotton fleece makes it necessary to apply a flame retardant system on cotton fleece so that it can meet the federal regulation ‘Standard for the Flammability of Clothing Textiles’ (16 CFR 1610). The objective of this research was to reduce the flammability of cotton fleece using the phosphorus‐containing maleic acid oligomers (PMAO) synthesized by aqueous free radical polymerization of maleic acid. We found that PMAO can be bound to cotton fleece by esterifying with cotton cellulose with sodium hypophosphite as the catalyst. Both the 45^° flammability and limiting oxygen index data indicated that the treatment of cotton using PMAO reduced the flammability of cotton fleece. The micro‐scale combustion calorimetric data revealed that PMAO reduced the peak heat release rate and heat release capacity of the treated cotton woven fabric. The cotton fleece treated with PMAO/NaH₂PO₂ passed the federal flammability test (16 CFR Part 1610) and achieved ‘Class 1’ flammability. The PMAO bound to cotton was durable to multiple home laundering cycles. The treated fleece also showed high strength retention with little change in fabric whiteness. The use of triethanolamine as an additive modestly enhanced the performance of PMAO with no significant changes in fabric physical properties. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Surface modification of TiO2/SiO2 composite hydrosol stabilized with polycarboxylic acid on Kroy-process wool fabric

Self-cleaning of wool fabric has been of increasing interest due to availability and practicability. In this paper, two kinds of wool fabrics, including raw wool and Kroy-process wool fabric, were successfully modified by TiO₂/SiO₂ gel stabilized by 1,2,3,4-butanetetracarboxylic acid (BTCA) and citric acid (CA), respectively. The optimum concentration of carboxylic acids and TiO₂/SiO₂ gel was decided by the crease recovery angles and total color difference (ΔE) values, respectively. The results revealed that wool fabrics treated with BTCA and TiO₂/SiO₂ had better wrinkle resistance in comparison with CA and TiO₂/SiO₂ treated samples. The decomposition of stains was studied using UV irradiation and the presence of TiO₂/SiO₂ gel demonstrated obvious self-cleaning property, in which the color of wool fabric was unchangeable. The hydrophilicity of Kroy-process wool fabric increased relative to raw ones. In addition, Scanning Electron Microscope images demonstrated the layer of TiO₂/SiO₂ nanoparticles coated on treated samples. In general, the adhesion properties coated to the fabric surface showed a slight loss even at harsh processing conditions, however, the anti-UV properties obviously increased due to the decrease in the fabric porosity. And the linkages between carboxylic acid and wool fibers were illustrated using FTIR pattern.     

Flame‐retardant finishing of cotton fleece fabric: part I. The use of a hydroxy‐functional organophosphorus oligomer and dimethyloldihydroxylethyleneurea

Cotton fleece has become a popular fashion in recent years. However, most of the 100% cotton fleece fabric is not able to meet the federal flammability standard (‘16 CFR Part 1610: Standard for the Flammability of Clothing Textiles’) without chemical treatment. In this research, we investigated the use of the combination of a hydroxy‐functional organophosphorus oligomer (HFPO) as the flame‐retarding agent and dimethyloldihydroxylethyleneurea (DMDHEU) as the binder to reduce the flammability of cotton fleece. We found that HFPO is effective in reducing the flammability of the cotton fleece whereas DMDHEU enhances the effectiveness of HFPO due to phosphorus–nitrogen synergism. The flammability as well as other properties of the treated cotton fleece is affected by both the concentration of HFPO and that of DMDHEU. The cotton fleece treated with HFPO/DMDHEU passes the federal flammability standard and shows high strength retention with little change in fabric whiteness and hand. We also found that the flame‐retardant finishing system is durable to multiple home launderings. The combination of HFPO and DMDHEU has the potential to become a practical flame‐retardant finishing system to reduce the flammability of cotton fleeces. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Color evaluation of wool fabric dyed with Rhizoma coptidis extract

Berberine is the only cationic colorant of natural plant dyes, which lies in the roots of Rhizoma coptidis and stems of phellodendron. In this study, wool fabric was dyed with the extracts of R. coptidis. Color evaluation was characterized with ΔE, L*, a*, b*, c*, H⁰, K/S. Effects of mordant, extraction concentration, pH value of dye bath, and treatment temperature on color values were studied. Results indicated that wool fabrics dyed with mordant, or at higher temperature, or in alkali solution possessed deeper shades and darker colors. And the wool fabric showed good antibacterial property after dyeing with R. coptidis extracts. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 3376–3380, 2006     

Synthesis of a di‐(p‐sulphophenoxy)‐s‐triazine reactive dye and its application in wool fabric ink‐jet printing

Reactive dyes based on p‐sulphophenoxy‐s‐triazines were synthesised, characterised and applied to wool fabric by ink‐jet printing. The extent of dye‐fibre covalent bonding (% fixation) was measured on prints produced using different development methods. The most promising method to obtain high dye‐fibre fixation values was to interleave the printed wool with a pre‐wetted cotton fabric and store for 3 h. Steam fixation was also investigated but gave lower fixation values. The degree of dye hydrolysis vs time in the ink formulation was evaluated because ink stability is critical in commercial operation; a reformulated ink based on a phosphate buffer was found to improve ink stability.     

Economical and technical comparison of valve ceramics available in Turkish market

In this study, ceramic valves, used in faucet cartridges, were studied, considering that the market size is nearly 12 million per year. Six different alumina ceramic valves from various companies in Turkey were analyzed through physical and mechanical tests such as measurement of density, and surface roughness and hardness. Their chemical compositions and microstructures were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results showed that the density values, surface roughness, and surface hardness were between 3.66 and 3.84 g/cm³, 0.13 and 0.22 µm (Ra), and 805 and 1217 HV, respectively. Among the six valves, while valve 4 had the highest, valve 6 had the lowest hardness and density. Moreover, a direct correlation between the estimated wholesale and retail prices was not observed. The valves designated as 5 and 6 had the lowest prices and the valve 2 had the highest price. They had the similar technical properties satisfying Turkish and European standards.     

Characterization of Turkish Olive Oils by Triacylglycerol Structures and Sterol Profiles

A characterization study of Turkish monovarietal olive oils using chemical variables such as fatty acid, sn‐2 fatty acid, triacylglycerol, and sterol composition is presented. A total of 101 samples of Olea europaea L. fruits from 18 cultivars were collected for two crop years from west, south, and southeast regions of Turkey. Olives were processed to oil and olive oil samples were evaluated for their triacylglycerol structures and sterol composition. Oleic acid content ranged from 60.15 to 80.46 % of total fatty acids and represented 70.90–89.02 % of sn‐2 position triacylglycerols. Major triglycerides of oil samples were triolein, palmitodiolein, dioleolinolein, palmitooleolinolein, dipalmitoolein, and stearodiolein. Triolein values were between 24.72 and 48.64 % and compatible with the fatty acid composition. Total sterol content varied from 1,145.32 to 2,211.77 mg/kg and Edremit yagl?k stood out because of its high sterol content. A one‐way analysis of variance revealed significant differences for variables among cultivars. Principle component analysis enabled the classification of common varieties on the basis of analytical data. Sterol composition achieved more relevant discrimination than fatty acid and triglyceride composition. Classification according to geographical origin was performed by discriminant analysis.     

Investigating Fatty Acid Composition of Samples were Homogenized Various Meat and Offal Products from Turkey

The aim of the present study was to compare the fatty acid composition, PUFA:SFA ratio, n6/n3 ratio, and TFA of different farm animal meats and offal products. These products were collected at a regional farm in Istanbul which is the most populous city in Turkey. The results of fatty acid composition analysis indicated that the major fatty acids of C16:0 (18.00–29.35 %), C18:0 (4.10–29.71 %), C18:1 (29.21–57.30 %), and C18:2 (1.37–18.60 %) were found in the samples. The total saturated fatty acids, total monounsaturated fatty acids and total polyunsaturated fatty acids content of the samples ranged between 30.00 and 61.83 %, 32.24 and 57.80 %, and 1.64 and 23.60 %, respectively (p < 0.05). Except for turkey abdominal fat, TFA content in all other samples showed a variation between 0.10 and 3.36 %. The PUFA:SFA ratio was higher in turkey meat (0.64) and was lower in sheep kidney fat (0.02). Moreover, the n6/n3 PUFA ratio changed between 2.90 and 22.28 (p < 0.05).     

Effect of reactive dyeing on the UV protection affected by knitted fabric made from different types of cotton fibre

In this study, 100% cotton knitted fabrics made from combed cotton and combed pima cotton were dyed with reactive dye, with different dye concentrations. Colour properties such as CIE L*a*b* values as well as dyeing uniformity of the dyed fabrics were measured. The relationships between colour properties and the ultraviolet protection afforded by cotton knitted fabrics were investigated. Experimental results revealed that dye concentration is the most important factor. In addition, only L* values have a direct mathematical relationship with the ultraviolet protection factor; a* and b* values and dyeing uniformity were not found to have a significant correlation with ultraviolet protection factor values. Meanwhile, knitted fabric made from combed cotton fibre has better ultraviolet protection performance than fabric made from combed pima cotton fibre.