Effect of metalloid silicon addition on densification,microstructure and thermal–physical properties of Al/diamond composites consolidated by spark plasma sintering

Aluminum matrix composites reinforced with diamond particles were consolidated by spark plasma sintering. Metalloid silicon was added (Al–Si/diamond composites) to investigate the effect. Silicon addition promotes the formation of molten metal during the sintering to facilitate the densification and enhance the interfacial bonding. Meanwhile, the alloying metal matrix precipitates the eutectic-Si on the diamond surfaces acting as the transitional part to protect the improved interface during the cooling stage. The improved interface and precipitating eutectic-Si phase are mutually responsible for the optimized properties of the composites. In this study, for the Al–Si/diamond composite with 55 vol.% diamonds of 75 μm diameter, the thermal conductivity increased from 200 to 412 Wm⁻¹ K⁻¹, and the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) decreased from 8.9 to 7.3 × 10⁻⁶ K⁻¹, compared to the Al/diamond composites. Accordingly, the residual plastic strain was 0.10 × 10⁻³ during the first cycle and rapidly became negligible during the second. Additionally, the measured CTE of the Al–Si/diamond composites was more conform to the Schapery’s model.     

Effect of copper content on the thermal conductivity and thermal expansion of Al–Cu/diamond composites

Al–Cu matrix composites reinforced with diamond particles (Al–Cu/diamond composites) have been produced by a squeeze casting method. Cu content added to Al matrix was varied from 0 to 3.0 wt.% to detect the effect on thermal conductivity and thermal expansion behavior of the resultant Al–Cu/diamond composites. The measured thermal conductivity for the Al–Cu/diamond composites increased from 210 to 330 W/m/K with increasing Cu content from 0 to 3.0 wt.%. Accordingly, the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) was tailored from 13 × 10⁻⁶ to 6 × 10⁻⁶/K, which is compatible with the CTE of semiconductors in electronic packaging applications. The enhanced thermal conductivity and reduced coefficient of thermal expansion were ascribed to strong interface bonding in the Al–Cu/diamond composites. Cu addition has lowered the melting point and resulted in the formation of Al₂Cu phase in Al matrix. This is the underlying mechanism responsible for the strengthening of Al–Cu/diamond interface. The results show that Cu alloying is an effective approach to promoting interface bonding between Al and diamond.     

Thermal conductivity of Cu–Zr/diamond composites produced by high temperature–high pressure method

Copper matrix composites reinforced with about 90 vol.% of diamond particles, with the addition of zirconium to copper matrix, were prepared by a high temperature–high pressure method. The Zr content was varied from 0 to 2.0 wt.% to investigate the effect on interfacial microstructure and thermal conductivity of the Cu–Zr/diamond composites. The highest thermal conductivity of 677 W m⁻¹ K⁻¹ was achieved for the composite with 1.0 wt.% Zr addition, which is 64% higher than that of the composite without Zr addition. This improvement is attributed to the formation of ZrC at the interface between copper and diamond. The variation of thermal conductivity of the composites was correlated to the evolution of interfacial microstructure with increasing Zr content.     

Thermal conductivity of Cu/diamond composites prepared by a new pretreatment of diamond powder

Cu/diamond composites were fabricated by spark plasma sintering (SPS) after the surface pretreatment of the diamond powders, in which the diamond particles were mixed with copper powder and tungsten powder (carbide forming element W). The effects of the pretreatment temperature and the diamond particle size on the thermal conductivity of diamond/copper composites were investigated. It was found that when 300 μm diamond particles and Cu–5 wt.% W were mixed and preheated at 1313 K, the composites has a relatively higher density and its thermal conductivity approaches 672 W (m K)⁻¹.     

Processing and thermal properties of Al/AlN composites in continuous solid–liquid co-existent state by spark plasma sintering

Aluminum nitride-particle-dispersed aluminum–matrix composites were fabricated in a unique fabrication method, where the powder mixture of AlN, pure Al and Al–5 mass%Si alloy was uniquely designed to form continuous solid–liquid co-existent state during spark plasma sintering (SPS) process. Composites fabricated in such a way can be well consolidated by heating during SPS processing in a temperature range between 798 K and 876 K for a heating duration of 1.56 ks. Microstructures of the composites thus fabricated were examined by scanning electron microscopy and no reaction product was detected at the interface between the AlN particle and the Al matrix. The relative packing density of the Al/AlN composite was almost 100% when volume fraction of AlN is between 40% and 60%. Thermal conductivity of the composite was higher than 180 W/mK at an AlN fraction range between 40 and 65 vol.%, approximately 90% of the theoretical thermal conductivity estimated by Maxwell–Eucken’s model. The coefficient of thermal expansion of the composite falls in the upper line of Kerner’s model, indicating strong bonding between the AlN particle and the Al matrix in the composite.     

Processing of Al/SiC composites in continuous solid–liquid co-existent state by SPS and their thermal properties

Silicon carbide (SiC)-particle-dispersed-aluminum (Al) matrix composites were fabricated in a unique fabrication method, where the powder mixture of SiC, pure Al and Al–5mass% Si alloy was uniquely designed to form continuous solid–liquid co-existent state during spark plasma sintering (SPS) process. Composites fabricated in such a way can be well consolidated by heating during SPS processing in a temperature range between 798 K and 876 K for a heating duration of 1.56 ks. Microstructures of the composites thus fabricated were examined by scanning electron microscopy and no reaction was detected at the interface between the SiC particle and the Al matrix. The relative packing density of the Al–matrix composite containing SiC was higher than 99% in a volume fraction range of SiC between 40% and 55%. Thermal conductivity of the composite increased with increasing the SiC content in the composite at a SiC fraction range between 40 vol.% and 50 vol.%. The highest thermal conductivity was obtained for Al–50 vol.% SiC composite and reached 252 W/mK. The coefficient of thermal expansion of the composites falls in the upper line of Kerner’s model, indicating strong bonding between the SiC particle and the Al matrix in the composite.     

In situ joining of titanium to SiC/Al composites by low pressure infiltration

A method of in situ joining of titanium to SiC/Al composites by low pressure infiltration was proposed. The effect of infiltration temperature on microstructure and bending strength of in situ joining composites was investigated and the best infiltration temperature was confirmed to be 710 °C. The interfacial region of SiC/Al/Ti composites was consisted of Ti substrate, Al–Ti interfacial layer, Al layer and SiC/Al composite. The bending strength of SiC/Al composites kept nearly constant as the infiltration temperature changed while that of SiC/Al/Ti composites was influenced significantly by the infiltration temperature. The fracture occurred at the Al–Ti and Al–SiC/Al interfaces alternately as infiltrated at 670 °C. But as the infiltration temperature was increased to 710 °C, the fracture occurred only at the Al–SiC/Al interface which shows a great interfacial bonding at the Al–Ti interface. The formation of Al–Ti brittle intermetallics and the effect of crystallization and grain coarsening are two possible reasons which lead to the decrease of bending strength when the infiltration temperatures were increased from 710 °C to 730 °C.     

Mechanical properties of a diamond–copper composite with high thermal conductivity

Using pressureless infiltration of copper into a bed of coarse (180 μm) diamond particles pre-coated with tungsten, a composite with a thermal conductivity of 720 W/(m K) was prepared. The bending strength and compression strength of the composite were measured as 380 MPa. As measured by sound velocity, the Young's modulus of the composite was 310 GPa. Model calculations of the thermal conductivity, the strength and elastic constants of the copper–diamond composite were carried out, depending on the size and volume fraction of filler particles. The coincidence of the values of bending strength and compressive strength and the relatively high deformation at failure (a few percent) characterize the fabricated diamond–copper composite as ductile. The properties of the composite are compared to the known analogues — metal matrix composites with a high thermal conductivity having a high content of filler particles (~ 60 vol.%). In strength and ductility our composite is superior to diamond–metal composites with a coarse filler; in thermal conductivity it surpasses composites of SiC–Al, W–Cu and WC–Cu, and dispersion-strengthened copper.     

The influence of compression molding techniques on thermal conductivity of UHMWPE/BN and UHMWPE/(BN + MWCNT) hybrid composites with segregated structure

Various ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE)/boron nitride (BN) and UHMWPE/(BN + multi-wall carbon nanotube (MWCNT)) composites with segregated structure were prepared by using the compression molding process. The dispersion of fillers under different compression molding were observed by optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The results showed that integrated thermal conductive networks were formed after cold-pressing sintering. However, these networks would be destroyed by middle-high pressure/high temperature treatment. Although the treatment of high pressure/high temperature can effectively improve the crystallinity and crystal size of UHMWPE, the thermal conductivity of composite dramatically decreased due to the replacement of filler-filler by filler-polymer-filler interface. The 1D-MWCNT is liable to entangle with 2D-BNs and formed MWCNT-BN networks even at high pressure/high temperature, leading to a nearly constant thermal conductivity (reached 1.794 W/m·K with the addition of 50% (BNs + MWCNT) hybrid fillers). Besides, the dispersion of the fillers have a great influence on thermal stability of the composites.     

Morphology and thermal conductivity of polyacrylate composites containing aluminum/multi-walled carbon nanotubes

Polyacrylate composites with various fillers such as multi-walled carbon nanotube (CNT), aluminum flake (Al-flake), aluminum powders and Al–CNT were prepared by a ball milling. The thermal decomposition temperature increased by as much as 64 °C for polyacrylate/Al-flake 70 wt% composite compared to polyacrylate. The thermal conductivity of polyacrylate/Al–CNT composites increased from 0.50 to 1.67 W/m K as the Al–CNT content increases from 50 to 80 wt%. The thermal conductivity of the composite sheet increases with the sheet thickness. At the given filler concentration (90 wt%), the composite filled with aluminum powder of 13 μm has a higher thermal conductivity than the one filled 3 μm powder, and the composite filled with mixture of two powders showed a synergistic effect on the thermal conductivity. The morphology indicates that the dispersion of CNT in the polyacrylate/Al-flake + CNT composite is not perfect, and agglomeration of CNTs was observed.     

Processing of diamond-particle-dispersed silver-matrix composites in solid–liquid co-existent state by SPS and their thermal conductivity

Diamond-particle-dispersed silver (Ag) matrix composite was fabricated in a unique fabrication method, where solid–liquid coexistent state of the powder mixture of diamond, pure Ag and pure Si was designed to create during spark plasma sintering (SPS) process. The composite is well consolidated in a temperature range between 1113 K and 1188 K and no reaction was detected by scanning electron microscopy at the interface between diamond particles and the Ag matrix. The relative packing density of the diamond–Ag composite fabricated was 95–97% in a volume fraction range of diamond between 40% and 50%. The thermal conductivity of the diamond–Ag composite containing 50 vol.% (v/o) diamond reached 717 W/mK, approximately 80% the theoretical thermal conductivity calculated by Maxwell–Eucken’s equation. This result suggests that the solid–liquid co-existent state during SPS consolidation is very effective not only for rapid densification of the composite but also for producing strong bonding between the diamond particles and the Ag matrix.     

Mechanism of SiC crystals growth on {100} and {111} diamond surfaces upon microwave heating

The subject of this work is focused on characterization of the microstructures and orientations of SiC crystals synthesized in diamond–SiC–Si composites using reactive microwave sintering. The SiC crystals grown on the surfaces of diamonds have either shapes of cubes or hexagonal prisms, dependent on crystallographic orientation of diamond. The selection of a specified plane in diamond lattice for the TEM investigations enabled a direct comparison of SiC orientations against two types of diamond facets. On the {111} diamond faces a 200 nm layer of 30–80 nm flat β-SiC grains was found having a semi-coherent interface with diamond at an orientation: (111)[112]SiC║(111)[110]C. On the {100} diamond faces β-SiC forms a 300 nm intermediate layer of 20–80 nm grains and an outer 1.2 µm layer on top of it. Surprisingly, the SiC lattice of the outer layer is aligned with the diamond lattice: (111)[110]SiC║(111)[110]C.     

Effects of high-temperature annealing on the microstructure and properties of C/SiC–ZrB2 composites

C/SiC–ZrB₂ composites prepared via precursor infiltration and pyrolysis (PIP) were treated at high temperatures ranging from 1200 °C to 1800 °C. The mass loss rate of the composites increased with increasing annealing temperature and the flexural properties of the composites increased initially and then decreased reversely. Out of the four samples, the flexural strength and the modulus of the specimen treated at 1400 °C are maximal at 216.9 MPa and 35.5 GPa, suggesting the optimal annealing temperature for mechanical properties is 1400 °C. The fiber microstructure evolution during high-temperature annealing would not cause the decrease of fiber strength, and moderate annealing temperature enhanced the thermal stress whereas weakened the interface bonding, thus boosting the mechanical properties. However, once the annealing temperature exceeded 1600 °C, element diffusion and carbothermal reduction between ZrO₂ impurity and carbon fibers led to fiber erosion and a strong interface, jeopardizing the mechanical properties of the composites. The mass loss rate and linear recession rate of composites treated at 1800 °C are merely 0.0141 g/s and 0.0161 mm/s, respectively.     

Sintering and technological properties of alumina/zirconia/nano-TiO2 ceramic composites

The present work focuses on studying the effect of nano TiO₂ (0.0–25 mass%) on the sintering behavior and mechanical properties of alumina/zirconia ceramic composites. Al₂O₃–ZrO₂–TiO₂ oxides mixture was sintered at 1600 °C to obtain the desired composites. The sinterability and the technological properties of these ceramic composites, i.e. the sintering parameters and microhardness as well as thermal shock resistance were investigated. Moreover, phase composition and microstructure of the sintered bodies were examined using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS). The results revealed that nano TiO₂ is a beneficial component for alumina/zirconia ceramic composites. The batch containing 20 mass% TiO₂ exhibited the highest sintering and mechanical properties as well as resistance to thermal shock. The obtained microstructure exhibited high compacted ceramic matrix composites.     

Preparation and characterization of a novel hydroxyapatite/carbon nanotubes composite and its interaction with osteoblast-like cells

Hydroxyapatite (HA) and its based biomaterials could chemically bond directly to bone when implanted, resulting in the formation of a strong bone-implant interface. Carbon nanotubes (CNT) are believed to be very promising in the enhancement ceramic matrix and played an important role as reinforcement for imparting strength and toughness to brittle HA bioceramic. Here we demonstrate the potential use in reinforcing biomaterials through an attempt to use CNT strengthen brittle HA bioceramic. This work aims to study the optimum sintering conditions of CNT modified HA to get CNT–HA composite with improved mechanical properties using a rapid spark plasma sintering system. The microstructure, phases, chemical compositions and mechanical properties of the ceramic samples were characterized by various advanced methods. Though no obvious chemical reaction between CNT and HA has been detected, the physical crosslink caused by the presence of CNT resulted in that a CNT–HA composite with a relatively high value of modulus (~ 131.1 GPa) and hardness (~ 6.86 GPa) achieved at the sintering temperature of 1100 °C. In vitro cellular responses to the composites were assessed to investigate the proliferation and morphology of a human osteoblast cell line cultured on the various composites.     

Lightweight carbon-bonded carbon fiber composites with quasi-layered and network structure

Lightweight carbon-bonded carbon fiber (CBCF) composites were fabricated with chopped carbon fibers and dilute phenolic resin solution by pressure filtration, followed by carbonization at 1000 °C in argon. The as-prepared CBCF composites had a homogenous fiber network distribution in xy direction and quasi-layered structure in z direction. The pyrolytic carbon derived from phenolic resin was mainly accumulated at the intersections and surfaces of chopped carbon fibers. The composites possessed compressive strengths ranged from 0.93–6.63 MPa in xy direction to 0.30–2.01 MPa in z direction with a density of 0.162–0.381 g cm^− 3. The thermal conductivity increased from 0.314–0.505 to 0.139–0.368 Wm^− 1 K^− 1 in xy and z directions, respectively. The experimental results indicate that the CBCF composites prepared by this technique can significantly contribute to improve the thermal insulation and mechanical properties at high temperature.     

Effect of sintering temperature on microstructures and mechanical properties of spark plasma sintered nanocrystalline aluminum

Organic-coated aluminum nano-powders were consolidated by spark plasma sintering technique with low initial pressure of 1 MPa and high holding pressure of 300 MPa at different sintering temperature. The effect of sintering temperature on microstructures and mechanical properties of the compact bulks was investigated. The results indicate that both the density and the strain of the nanocrystalline aluminum increase with an increase in sintering temperature. However, the micro-hardness, compressive strength and tensile stress of the compact bulks increase initially and then decrease with increasing sintering temperature. The nanocrystalline aluminum sintered at 773 K has the highest micro-hardness of 3.06 GPa, the best compressive strength of 665 MPa and the supreme tensile stress of 282 MPa. A rapid grain growth of nanocrystalline aluminum sintered at 823 K leads to a decrease in micro-hardness, compressive strength and tensile stress. After annealing, a remarkable increase in strain and a slight rise in strength were obtained due to the relief of the residual stress in nanocrystalline Al and the formation of composite structure.     

Investigation on in situ Al0.5FeSi0.5/Al composites prepared by transient liquid phase sintering

In situ Al_0.5FeSi_0.5/Al composites were prepared by transient liquid-phase sintering. The hardness and wear resistance of the composites were investigated with an XHV-1000 microhardness tester and an M-2000 wear tester. Results show that with increased sintering temperature and holding time, the in situ needle-like reinforcement is transformed into short, bar-like, massive particles. At a sintering temperature of 510 °C and holding time of 4 h, the reinforcement consists of short, bar-like Al_0.5FeSi_0.5; moreover, the hardness of the in situ Al_0.5FeSi_0.5/Al composites peaks to a value eight times that of pure aluminum and 2.5 times that of Al–Si alloy. Accordingly, the wear resistance of the composites is the highest, i.e., 6.6 that of pure Al and 4.5 times that of Al–Si alloy.     

Fabrication,interface characterization and modeling of oriented graphite flakes/Si/Al composites for thermal management applications

Highly thermally conductive graphite flakes (G_f)/Si/Al composites have been fabricated using G_f, Si powder and an AlSi₇Mg_0.3 alloy by an optimized pressure infiltration process for thermal management applications. In the composites, the layers of G_f were spaced apart by Si particles and oriented perpendicular to the pressing direction, which offered the opportunity to tailor the thermal conductivity (TC) and coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the composites. Microstructural characterization revealed that the formation of a clean and tightly-adhered interface at the nanoscale between the side surface of the G_f and Al matrix, devoid of a detrimental Al₄C₃ phase and a reacted amorphous Al–Si–O–C layer, contributed to excellent thermal performance along the alignment direction. With increasing volume fraction of G_f from 13.7 to 71.1 vol.%, the longitudinal (i.e. parallel to the graphite layers) TC of the composites increased from 179 to 526 W/m K, while the longitudinal CTE decreased from 12.1 to 7.3 ppm/K (matching the values of electronic components). Furthermore, the modified layers-in-parallel model better fitted the longitudinal TC data than the layers-in-parallel model and confirmed that the clean and tightly-adhered interface is favorable for the enhanced longitudinal TC.     

Architecting graphene nanowalls on diamond powder surface

Graphene nanowalls (GNWs) have been synthesized on diamond particle surface by a simple heat-treatment process in vacuum induction furnace. The thickness of the as-grown GNWs is in the range of 20–40 nm, and most of the nanowalls are smooth and flat. The growth of GNWs is affected by the type of catalyst and treatment temperature, and the mixed catalytic effect of Fe and Ni is better than Fe or Ni respectively. High-density GNWs was grown on the diamond particle entire surface, when the heat treatment process is performed at 1473 K. Al/diamond composites with high thermal conductivity of 423 W/(m K) was obtained, which was achieved by the formation of large number of GNWs on the diamond particle surface. Systematic analyses reveal that the growth models such as classic precipitation upon cooling (PUC) model are not applicable to explain this kind of GNW’s growth mechanism. Hereby, an extended PUC model is proposed to interpret the GNW’s growth process on diamond surface.