Amplitude-modulated lock-in vibrothermography for NDE of polymers and composites

We present a nondestructive testing method based on lock-in thermography with mechanical heat excitation. Stresses are generated in the sample by vibrating it with a mechanical shaker. The mechanical energy is converted to thermal energy due to the acoustical damping. The defected regions have a stronger damping and also a stress concentration next to them, both of which result in a higher temperature generation. Because of the changes of the thermal properties, the defects also affect the heat conduction. These phenomena result in thermal anomalies due to the defects. The high-frequency vibration used for excitation is amplitude-modulated with a low frequency. The magnitude and phase of the sample temperature with respect to the modulation are measured with an infrared camera and a software lock-in technique. The use of phase information increases the reliability of the defect detection, and the application of high vibration frequencies results in a good thermal signal even at low stress levels, which helps to keep the test truly nondestructive. The suitability of the method was proved with samples of CFRP and aramid composites, and different polymers. The measurements included detection of impact damages, inclusions, voids, and cracks, and the evaluation of stress level distributions, paint thicknesses, and quality of bondings.     

基于锁相红外热成像理论的复合材料网格加筋结构的无损检测

基于锁相红外热成像理论, 对复合材料网格加筋结构的几类典型缺陷进行无损检测, 采用法国Cedip公司开发的锁相红外热成像系统对检测结果进行分析。讨论了加载频率、 输出电压偏移量对检测的影响。结果表明, 相位图比幅值图含有更多的缺陷信息。不同的加载频率会产生不同的检测结果, 选择恰当的加载频率是检测的关键; 增加输出电压偏移量有利于检测。该方法可用于对复合材料未知缺陷的检测。      

Study on the Detection of CFRP Material with Subsurface Defects Using Barker-Coded Thermal Wave Imaging (BC-TWI) as a Nondestructive Inspection (NDI) Tool

In this paper, a Barker-coded thermal wave imaging approach is reported on the detection of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminate with subsurface defects, using an integrated Barker code sequence and sinusoidal carrier-modulated laser as the excitation source. Artificial flat bottom holes as subsurface defects are prepared for the experimental investigation. Cross-correlation (CC) algorithm is applied for extracting characteristics of thermal wave signal and forming the corresponding peak delay time and phase images. The effects of Barker code sequence length and carrier-modulated frequency are investigated, which are both most important factors on the detectability of BC-TWI method. The results of the experiments show 5-bit Barker code and 0.1 Hz carrier frequency are the most suitable selection for enhancing inspection capability and obtaining the highest image SNR for a given CFRP laminate material. Furthermore, a comparative experiment is carried out between BC-TWI and lock-in thermography (LIT) method by taking the defect contrast and SNR into account. The results indicate that the BC-TWI CC phase image has higher contrast and SNR than the LIT phase image.     

The study of inspection on SiC coated carbon–carbon composite with subsurface defects by lock-in thermography

An investigation into the effect of size on the quantitative estimation of defect depth in a SiC coated carbon–carbon (C/C) composite has been undertaken by lock-in thermography. A dedicated 3-D thermal modeling has been introduced, and an efficient numerical algorithm based on finite-difference splitting method in time domain (FDSM-TD) is applied to solve the thermal model. The heat transfer partial differential equation (PDE) and mathematic morphological algorithms are used to filter the phase angle data noise. The diameter of a defect had an appreciable effect on the observed phase angle which consequently has significant implications with regard to estimating the defect depth. Phase angle contrast measurements for a range of defects in a 6.0 mm SiC coated C/C composite specimen indicate that an optimal excitation frequency of 0.525 Hz is available for defect detection. Results obtained with an excitation frequency of 0.525 Hz are used to discuss the limitations of determining the defect size and depth.     

2D C/SiC缺陷的无损检测与评价

采用化学气相渗透法制备了内置异物质缺陷的2D C/SiC复合材料,利用红外热成像、X射线照相和计算机断层扫描（工业CT）三种技术对C/SiC试样进行无损检测。研究了内置缺陷试样的三点弯曲性能。结果表明:X射线照相适用于检测试样中有明显密度差异的缺陷;红外热成像检测适用于检测材料中导热系数较差的孔洞及分层缺陷;工业CT可以检测材料的局部横截面密度差异、孔洞和分层等缺陷的细节特征。2D C/SiC材料在受弯曲载荷时,容易从内置异物质缺陷处开裂,且随该缺陷长度增加,其抗弯强度及临界裂纹扩展能降低。      

Optimization of the Inspection of Large Composite Materials Using Robotized Line Scan Thermography

The emergence of composite materials has started a revolution in the aerospace industry. When using composite materials, it is possible to design larger and lighter components. However, due to their anisotropy, composite materials are usually difficult to inspect and detecting internal defects is a challenge. Line scan thermography (LST) is a dynamic thermography technique, which is used to inspect large components of metallic surfaces and composites, commonly used in the aerospace industry. In this paper, the robotized LST technique has been investigated on a large composite component which contains different types of internal defects located at a variety of depths. For theoretical analysis, the LST inspection was simulated using a mathematical formulation based on the 3D heat conduction equation in the transient regime in order to determine the optimum parameters. The solution of the model was performed using the finite element method. The LST parameters were adjusted to detect the deepest defects in the specimen. In order to validate the numerical results with experimental data, a robotized system in which the infrared camera and the heating source move in tandem, has been employed. From the experimental tests, it was noted that there are three sources of noise (non-uniform heating, unsynchronized frame rate with scanning speed and robot arm vibration) which affect the performance of the test. In this work, image processing techniques that were initially developed to be applied on pulse thermography have been successfully implemented. Finally, the performance of each technique was evaluated using the probability of detection approach.     

IR Thermographic Analysis of 3D Printed CFRP Reference Samples with Back-Drilled and Embedded Defects

Carbon-fiber composite structures may demonstrate a defective behavior due to manufacturing induced anomalies (delamination, dis-bonds) or service related defectives (impact damage, water ingress). Thus, there is a need for a relatively fast and low cost non-intrusive testing schemes such as infrared thermography (IRT). Still, thermography testing requires calibrated samples and coupons to yield best results. The presented research demonstrates the novel use of 3D printing technology to generate IRT calibration samples. In this text, two carbon fiber reinforced polymer samples are 3D printed; the first mimics a “back-drilled holes” type coupons, while the other is designed to embed air pockets similar to Teflon inserts. The generated samples are then tested using two IRT modalities; namely pulse thermography and lock-in thermography. Furthermore, the resulted thermograms are processed using a principle component analysis, to help highlight the variance of defectives in a consistent manner among the samples. This research findings offer insights on the variation of detectability between embedded and back-printed samples, which might be due to the inserts thickness.     

Eddy Current Thermography with Adaptive Carrier Algorithm for Non-destructive Testing of Debonding Defects in Thermal Barrier Coatings

Interfacial defects can cause the premature failure of thermal barrier coatings (TBCs). An Eddy current thermography (ECT) method under the transmission mode in the heating phase is developed in this study to detect the artificial debonding defects in TBCs samples. When ECT is used, the temperature distribution of specimen surface is uneven on account of geometric heating effect, skin effect, edge effect and abnormal emissivity. Among them, the influence of the surface emissivity is the smallest, because the background noise is subtracted before the thermal images are processed. The uneven temperature distribution shields the weak thermal response characteristics of the defects and interferes with the identification of the defects. Adaptive carrier algorithms are established as post-processing algorithms to resolve this problem. The feasibility and validity of the developed methods are verified by simulation and validation tests using TBCs samples with a 2 mm artificial debonding defect and a 0.5 mm blind-hole defect.     

Evaluation of gluing of CFRP onto concrete structures by infrared thermography coupled with thermal impedance

Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRPs) have been increasingly employed for structural strengthening, and are attached to structures using bonding adhesives. The aim of this work is to characterize defects in the bond between CFRP and concrete (after they are located by pulse infrared thermography), and assign the defects a “numerical value” (ranging from 0 for a complete air–gap to 1 for a fully glued bond). Quantitative characterization is performed by measuring the thermal impedance, and then identifying the thermophysical parameters of the system through fitting the measured impedance to a theoretical model. An inversion procedure is carried out to estimate the unknown parameters, without prior knowledge of sample properties. In particular, it is possible to estimate more accurately both the amount of glue within a defect and the thermal contact resistance.     

Defect detection in CFRP by infrared thermography with CO2 Laser excitation compared to conventional lock-in infrared thermography

This paper presents a NDT by a CO₂ Laser infrared thermography applied to defect detection in CFRP. The CO₂ Laser is an infrared laser with the wavelength of 10.6 μm. This excitation has a controllable heating beam by a geometric relation D = 0.01575·d, which allows to heat the samples at a specific position (placed at the distance “d”) and area (of a diameter “D”). The PPT interpretation principle was used to reduce the non-uniformity’s effect of the excitation causing inhomogeneous heat. The test with this excitation is much faster than the tests with conventional lock-in thermography method.     

A review of factors influencing defect detection in infrared thermography: Applications to coated materials

Infrared thermography is a technique that is used to nondestructively inspect parts for the presence of subsurface defects. The technique normally consists of applying heat to one surface of the part and observing the thermal response, using heat-sensing devices such as infrared cameras, as the part cools. Internal defects such as voids modify the thermal response and produce local hot or cold spots on the specimen surface. For the detection of subsurface defects, the sensitivity of the technique to different parameters such as defect depth, material properties, and heating methods has not been established due in part to the complex nature of the heat/flaw interaction. A finite element model is used here to examine the influence of these parameters on defect dectability. The model shows that the defect detectability decreases with increasing defect depth beneath the surface, and that the technique is most sensitive to the inspection of low thermal diffusivity coatings bonded to high thermal diffusivity substrates. The results also show that the heat pulse duration should be made as short as possible to maximize defect detectability.     

Evaluation of Different Techniques of Active Thermography for Quantification of Artificial Defects in Fiber-Reinforced Composites Using Thermal and Phase Contrast Data Analysis

For assuring the safety and reliability of components and constructions in energy applications made of fiber-reinforced polymers (e.g., blades of wind turbines and tidal power plants, engine chassis, flexible oil and gas pipelines) innovative non-destructive testing methods are required. Within the European project VITCEA complementary methods (shearography, microwave, ultrasonics and thermography) have been further developed and validated. Together with partners from the industry, test specimens have been constructed and selected on-site containing different artificial and natural defect artefacts. As base materials, carbon and glass fibers in different orientations and layering embedded in different matrix materials (epoxy, polyamide) have been considered. In this contribution, the validation of flash and lock-in thermography to these testing problems is presented. Data analysis is based on thermal contrasts and phase evaluation techniques. Experimental data are compared to analytical and numerical models. Among others, the influence of two different types of artificial defects (flat bottom holes and delaminations) with varying diameters and depths and of two different materials (CFRP and GFRP) with unidirectional and quasi-isotropic fiber alignment is discussed.     

Analysis of Defective Carbon-Epoxy by Means of Lock-in Thermography

The attention of the present work is focused on the analysis of defects in carbon-epoxy laminates. Different specimens are manufactured by varying the laminate orientation code, the weave type (preimpregnated or nonimpregnated), and the kind of defect. In particular, defects such as inclusions of spurious materials, delamination, and localized lack or excess of resin are artificially created to simulate the most probable kinds of damage occurring in carbon-epoxy products during manufacturing and/or in service. Nondestructive tests are performed by means of lock-in thermography.     

Modeling of Environmental Effects on Thermal Detection of Subsurface Damage in Concrete

A significant form of deterioration in concrete is corrosion of embedded reinforcing steel that can cause subsurface delaminations and spalling. Infrared thermography can be used to detect delaminations based on variations in surface temperature that are caused by the disruption of the heat flow through the delaminated area. The surrounding environmental conditions such as sunlight, ambient temperature variation, and wind speed are critical for heat transfer, and as such the technology depends on these environmental conditions. This paper describes a numerical model developed to predict thermal contrasts for subsurface delaminations based on a given set of environmental conditions surrounding the concrete. The finite element method (FEM) was used to perform 3-D nonlinear transient heat-transfer analysis of a large concrete block with embedded Styrofoam targets intended to provide an idealized model of subsurface delaminations. The effectiveness of the modeling was evaluated by comparing the thermal contrasts predicted by the model and those obtained from experimental testing of an actual concrete block of the same dimensions. The correlation and error between the experimental testing and the model results indicated that the model could be an effective tool for the prediction of anticipated thermal contrasts based on given weather conditions.     

Application of lock-in thermography for failure analysis in integrated circuits using quantitative phase shift analysis

Lock-in thermography (LIT), which is a well established technique for non-destructive evaluation, can also be used to identify and locate thermal active electrically defects like shorts and resistive opens in microelectronic devices. Defect localization on the level of the integrated circuits (IC) requires a μm resolution. But LIT can also be applied to locate buried thermal active defects within fully packaged microelectronic devices by analysing the thermal signal detected at the surface of the device. In addition to the lateral localization of the hot spot, its depth can also be determined by analysing the phase shift of the thermal signal. This is especially valued for non destructive defect localization in complex 3D integrated system in package devices (3D SiP). In comparison to competitive thermal imaging techniques, like liquid crystal imaging or fluorescent micro thermal imaging, LIT is easier to apply since it does not need any foreign thermal sensitive layer at the surface of the device. Also, the sensitivity limit of this technique within μK range is significantly better. In addition the dynamic character of LIT reduces thermal blurring, and the problem of inhomogeneous IR emissivity can be overcome by using the phase image or the 0°/−90° image. The spatial resolution limit of the used microscopic thermal imaging setup performed in the mid-wavelength range is about 5 μm, but can be improved to 1.5 μm by applying solid immersion lenses. Within the paper, the principle theory of LIT and the practical use for both, single and multiple IC devices is presented.     

Analysis of Defective Carbon-Epoxy by Means of Lock-in Thermography

Abstract

The attention of the present work is focused on the analysis of defects in carbonepoxy laminates. Different specimens are manufactured by varying the laminate orientation code, the weave type (preimpregnated or nonimpregnated), and the kind of defect. In particular, defects such as inclusions of spurious materials, delamination, and localized lack or excess of resin are artificially created to simulate the most probable kinds of damage occurring in carbon-epoxy products during manufacturing and/or in service. Nondestructive tests are performed by means of lock-in thermography.     

Infrared Lock-in Thermography Crack Localization on Metallic Surfaces for Industrial Diagnosis

Optical lock-in thermography with a modulated laser excitation is used for the qualitative assessment of surface cracks in metallic samples. In order to identify and localize an open defect, a novel dedicated image processing of the recorded IR amplitude sequence is proposed. The obtained results demonstrate the potentiality of active lock-in thermography as a contactless measurement tool for the localization of breaking cracks located into specific regions difficult to reach by other conventional non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques such as eddy currents or ultrasound techniques. Crack localization without a prior preparation of the inspected surface can be a possible alternative to penetrant inspection in industrial processes. Various applications illustrating the proposed procedure are presented.     

Imaging of Barely Visible Impact Damage on a Complex Composite Stiffened Panel Using a Nonlinear Ultrasound Stimulated Thermography Approach

Thermosonics, also known as ultrasonic stimulated thermography, is a rapid non-destructive evaluation technique that uses an infrared camera to visualise material defects by detecting the frictional heating at crack surfaces when a part under inspection is vibrated. These vibrations are usually produced by an ultrasonic horn being pressed against the surface of the test sample, which result in uncontrolled generations of frequency components and excitation amplitude. This makes thermosonics highly non-reproducible and unreliable. This paper presents a novel thermographic method, here named as nonlinear ultrasound stimulated thermography, for the detection and imaging of real material defects such as impact damage on a complex composite stiffener panel. This technique combines nonlinear ultrasonic techniques with thermography. A nonlinear ultrasonic approach was used as signature for a reliable frequency-selective excitation of material defects, while an infrared camera was employed to reveal the damage location and severity. A nonlinear narrow sweep excitation method was employed to efficiently excite the local resonance frequencies of the damaged region in order to give rise to the highest nonlinear harmonic response in the material leading to a high heat generation at the crack surface. The experimental tests were carried out with a laser vibrometer in order to better understand the interaction of elastic waves with nonlinear scattering. An ad-hoc nonlinear thermal-structural finite element and crack model was developed to study the heat generation caused by the movement of the crack surfaces when elastic waves with a particular frequency impinges on the crack interphase with good agreement with the experimental results. The proposed new method allows to detect single and multiple barely visible impact damage in a quick, reliable and reproducible manner and overcomes the main limitations of classical thermosonics.     

复合材料调制热像检测的数值模拟

为了给复合材料结构的调制热波成像检测提供基础理论依据和操作参数窗口,用基于有限单元法的计算机数值模拟研究了复合材料层压板分层、脱粘的调制热像检测规律。分析了相位差与调制频率及缺陷深度的关系,提出了最佳检测频率、半高频带和盲频的预测方法,验证了利用盲频来估计缺陷深度的方法,提出利用最佳检测频率来估计缺陷深度的新方法。研究结果表明：最佳调制频率和盲频近似与缺陷深度的平方成反比;最大相位差及半高频带宽随缺陷深度的增大而减小;利用盲频和最佳调制频率都可以对缺陷深度进行定量估计,在缺陷深度为1~4 mm的范围内,两种方法的估计误差分别在约9%和11%以内。     

NDTE using pulse thermography: Numerical modeling of composite subsurface defects

The ability to predict subsurface defect information in composite materials through a non-invasive, efficient inspection protocol is fast becoming a vital research area. In numerically modeling the thermographic process associated with an infrared (IR) technique we can afford inspectors the ability to predict subsurface defect information associated with a specific material configuration. The research involved in this study looks specifically at the finite element modeling (FEM) of delaminations in a composite flat plate setup. To date the modeling of delaminations has been restricted to only two dimensional (2D) numerical representations and associated primarily with rear faced detection. The results of this research, however, clearly show that the rear faced detection technique has limitations in defect depth prediction and the 2D approximation associated with this technique ignores a paramount effect in the form of lateral thermal diffusion. It is also made clear that the representation of experimental flat plate models with flat bottomed holes, under pulse phase thermographic inspection, in simulating delaminations is misguided.