Deformation Behavior of Extra Deep Drawing Steel in Single-Point Incremental Forming

This paper focuses on investigation of formability, thickness distribution, strain distribution, and microstructural changes of extra deep drawing (EDD) steel in the single-point incremental forming (SPIF) process. For this, pyramidal frustums with varying wall angle along the depth were formed till the fracture. The parts were designed by rotating circular, elliptic, parabolic, and exponential curve segments. The varying wall angle pyramidal frustums (VWAPF) can minimize the number of experiments required to find the maximum wall angle compared to conventional constant wall angle pyramidal frustums. The maximum wall angle corresponding to fracture depth and thickness distribution along the depth was measured for parts with different generatrices. The maximum formable wall angle was found to be 73 ± 2°. Experimental thickness distribution was compared with the thickness distribution obtained from numerical simulations using the LS-DYNA software. A good correlation was found between experimental and numerical results. Furthermore, the distribution of strains obtained from numerical simulations revealed that the faces of the pyramid were under plane strain conditions, while the corners were toward biaxial stretching. The microstructural study showed that there was a grain refinement after incremental forming of the sheet.     

根部成形及错边量对不等壁厚环焊接头局部应变集中行为的影响

目的 探究高钢级管道不等壁厚环焊接头的局部应变集中规律,揭示其局部开裂的根本原因。方法 采用STT半自动根焊+自保护药芯焊丝半自动焊填充、盖面的方式焊接X80管道不等壁厚环,并利用DIC技术对3种不同错边量及根部成形的不等壁厚环焊接头进行全壁厚拉伸,观察其在拉伸过程中的应变规律。结果 不等壁厚环焊接头的应变集中主要发生在薄壁侧根部焊趾与厚壁侧盖面焊趾的连线区域,这是由于不等壁厚环焊接头受拉时会产生附加弯矩,该弯矩与薄壁侧根部焊趾及厚壁侧盖面焊趾处的应力集中相耦合使该区域发生应变集中。另外,错边量的存在会增大附加弯矩并使根部成形变差,因此错边量越大,应变集中区域面积越小、应变集中程度越高。定量分析结果表明,当薄壁侧管体远端应变达到0.5%时,3类成形接头根部最大应变分别为0.83%、9.60%、11.88%,盖面处最大应变分别为1.00%、7.10%、10.60%。结论 大的错边量或差的根部成形会使不等壁厚环焊接头局部出现严重的应变集中,若与焊接缺陷相耦合可能会导致接头局部损伤,为裂纹的萌生与扩展提供条件。因此,在焊接过程中应增加接头的组对精度、减小错边量。     

Optimizing the design and impact behavior of a polymeric enclosure

This paper focuses on the application of finite element analysis to design an electronic enclosure with improved impact resistance properties. With the growing push towards miniaturization there is a constant decrease in the wall thickness of the enclosure applications. This necessitates use of ribs to enhance the impact resistance. This study aims at investigating optimal design of ribs for improving impact resistance. The ‘DSGZ’ phenomenological constitutive model, which uniformly describes the entire range of stress–strain constitutive relationship of polymers under any monotonic loading mode is used to predict the plastic failure energies. Several simulation runs were performed based on the design parameters using a 2³ factorial design of experiments. The results from these simulations were used to analyze and study the various design parameters and its influence on the impact energy. It was found that when designing enclosures with ribs with an objective to maximize the impact failure energy, stress should be laid on optimizing the ratio of wall thickness to rib height within permissible limits while center-to-center spacing between the ribs and rib thickness do not have a significant effect.     

Effect of adhesive thickness on fatigue and fracture of toughened epoxy joints – Part II: Analysis and finite element modeling

The effect of bondline thickness on the fatigue and fracture of aluminum adhesive joints bonded using a rubber-toughened epoxy adhesive was studied using finite element analysis. The fatigue data of Part I examined the dependence of the fatigue threshold and cyclic crack growth rate on the adhesive thickness under both mode-I and mixed-mode loading. The fracture data of Part I illustrated the relation between the adhesive thickness and the quasi-static crack initiation and steady-state critical strain energy release rates. These experimental trends are explained in terms of the effects of the adhesive thickness and the applied strain energy release rate on the stress distribution in the bondline, the stress triaxiality at the crack tip, and the plastic zone size in the adhesive layer.     

Finite Element Analysis of Dynamic Mechanical Responses of Aluminum Honeycomb Sandwich Structures Under Low-Velocity Impact

Honeycomb sandwich structures, composed of many regularly arranged hexagonal cores and two skins, often show excellent impact performance due to strong energy absorption ability under impact loads. This paper studies dynamic mechanical responses of aluminum honeycomb sandwich structures. Parametric geometry modeling using UG software and finite element analysis using ANSYS explicit dynamics module are performed. Finite difference algorithm based on time-stepping integration is used to get the impact displacement, and stress and strain with time. Effects of different impact velocities, core length and wall thickness on the distributions of plastic stress and strain are also explored. Results show that thinner honeycomb side length and thicker wall thickness lead to stronger impact resistance. This research provides theoretical support for promoting optimal design of lightweight structures against impact loads.     

5083铝合金壳体超塑胀形加载曲线优化控制

为了改善超塑成形零件的壁厚均匀性问题,优化了有限元软件MARC的加载算法.在每一步长中选取20个应变速率最大的单元,求平均值,并与最佳应变速率对比,获得优化加载曲线.基于有限元分析,选择5083铝合金壳体进行了超塑成形实验.研究结果表明:优化的加载算法使应变速率始终保持在最佳应变速率附近,提高了零件变形严重区域的厚度;避免了在加载过程中由于壁厚不均匀使得裂纹产生,验证了模拟结果的准确性.与MARC默认的加载算法相比,采用优化加载算法能改善零件的壁厚均匀性.     

Elastic deformation of a tapered vascular prosthesis

An approximate analysis of the elastic properties of tapered microfibrous polyurethane arterial prostheses is presented by considering a tapered conduit to consist of a series of short cylindrical segments. Using this approach, the relatively simple, non-linear finite deformation models developed for cylindrical arterial specimens may be applied to each segment. A constitutive equation based on a polynomial form of strain energy density function is used in this study. The constitutive constants are determined using experimental data obtained from uniform cylindrical grafts and are used to predict the mechanical response of tapered grafts. The variation in local compliance for linear, tapered grafts of uniform and variable wall thickness is determined. Similarly, the variation in longitudinal strain for tapered grafts subjected to various longitudinal tensions is calculated. The primary purpose of this analysis is to provide data for the design of tapered, compliant vascular grafts. It may also be used to characterize the elastic properties of other non-uniform axi-symmetric elastomeric conduits.     

SiCp/Al复合材料薄壁回转体变形的仿真分析

运用有限元仿真软件ABAQUS对体积分数为56%的SiCp/Al复合材料薄壁回转体在静载荷作用下的应力、变形及应变进行了仿真研究,研究了载荷施加位置、外径和壁厚对SiCp/Al复合材料圆筒薄壁件的应力、变形及应变的影响规律。结果表明:在其他条件一致的情况下,回转体的外径越小、壁厚越大、受力点距离施加全约束的一端越近,回转体受到外载荷引起的最大应力、最大变形及最大应变越小。薄壁回转体工件的壁厚对工件最大应力、最大变形及最大应变的影响最为显著。当壁厚增加到1mm以上时,最大应力、最大变形及最大应变的变化不明显。     

Experimental characterization of microstructure development during loading path changes in bcc sheet steels

Interstitial free sheet steels show transient work hardening behavior, i.e., the Bauschinger effect and cross hardening, after changes in the loading path. This behavior affects sheet forming processes and the properties of the final part. The transient work hardening behavior is attributed to changes in the dislocation structure. In this work, the morphology of the dislocation microstructure is investigated for uniaxial and plane strain tension, monotonic and forward to reverse shear, and plane strain tension to shear. Characteristic features such as the thickness of cell walls and the shape of cells are used to distinguish microstructural patterns corresponding to different loading paths. The influence of the crystallographic texture on the dislocation structure is analyzed. Digital image processing is used to create a “library” of schematic representations of the dislocation microstructure. The dislocation microstructures corresponding to uniaxial tension, plane strain tension, monotonic shear, forward to reverse shear, and plane strain tension to shear can be distinguished from each other based on the thickness of cell walls and the shape of cells. A statistical analysis of the wall thickness distribution shows that the wall thickness decreases with increasing deformation and that there are differences between simple shear and uniaxial tension. A change in loading path leads to changes in the dislocation structure. The knowledge of the specific features of the dislocation structure corresponding to a loading path may be used for two purposes: (i) the analysis of the homogeneity of deformation in a test sample and (ii) the analysis of a formed part.     

底部开水平缝预应力自复位剪力墙有限元模拟

底部开水平缝预应力自复位剪力墙在墙体与基础连接处的两端设置水平缝,剪力墙和基础界面中间部位保持正常连接,在墙体内竖向设置无粘结预应力钢绞线提供自复位能力。通过有限元分析软件ABAQUS对低周反复加载试验中的底部开缝剪力墙进行数值模拟,介绍了建模方法及过程,将数值模拟的单调加载和往复加载结果与试验结果进行对比分析,包括骨架曲线、滞回曲线、耗能能力、预应力筋中应力变化、剪力墙底部抬升量、剪力墙混凝土应变和钢筋应力等参数。结果表明,采用的模拟方法能够在各项对比中较好吻合试验结果,证明了数值模拟的合理性和有效性,为工程应用中此类构件的精细化模拟分析提供了参考。     

A finite element model and experimental analysis of PTH reliability in rigid-flex printed circuits using the Taguchi method

The primary reliability concern in complex RFPC construction is PTH integrity as a result of thermo-mechanical deformation due to significant CTE mismatch between the copper and surrounding dielectric material. In this paper, a finite element model was developed to determine the maximum strain, by which the fatigue life could then be predicted and compared with the experimental thermal cyclic test results. The FEM results show that the maximum strain in the PTH of an RFPC depends on the varying properties of the dielectric materials. A Taguchi analysis indicated that higher fatigue life can be achieved by using high T_g and low CTE bonding material, increasing the plating thickness, reducing the board thickness and increasing the drill hole size. The results show a good agreement between the experimental data and the FEM analysis.     

带法兰椭圆形封头的有限元设计分析

传统带法兰椭圆形封头设计方法设计周期长、试错成本高。本文采用ANSYS有限元应力分析技术对带法兰椭圆形封头进行建模仿真分析,并与其他研究人员进行的带法兰椭圆形封头的验证性实验结果进行对比,结果表明有限元应力分析技术可以满足工程应用要求。最后利用ANSYS软件中的优化设计功能,对带法兰椭圆形封头的壁厚进行设计优化,壁厚为8.03 mm时,最大等效应力和最小总质量分别为312.3 MPa和26.2 kg,相比壁厚为10 mm时最小总质量下降了16.5%,可以达到节省工程材料、提高经济效益的目标。     

Detailed experimental and numerical analysis of a cylindrical cup deep drawing: Pros and cons of using solid-shell elements

The Swift test was originally proposed as a formability test to reproduce the conditions observed in deep drawing operations. This test consists on forming a cylindrical cup from a circular blank, using a flat bottom cylindrical punch and has been extensively studied using both analytical and numerical methods. This test can also be combined with the Demeri test, which consists in cutting a ring from the wall of a cylindrical cup, in order to open it afterwards to measure the springback. This combination allows their use as benchmark test, in order to improve the knowledge concerning the numerical simulation models, through the comparison between experimental and numerical results. The focus of this study is the experimental and numerical analyses of the Swift cup test, followed by the Demeri test, performed with an AA5754-O alloy at room temperature. In this context, a detailed analysis of the punch force evolution, the thickness evolution along the cup wall, the earing profile, the strain paths and their evolution and the ring opening is performed. The numerical simulation is performed using the finite element code ABAQUS, with solid and solid-shell elements, in order to compare the computational efficiency of these type of elements. The results show that the solid-shell element is more cost-effective than the solid, presenting global accurate predictions, excepted for the thinning zones. Both the von Mises and the Hill48 yield criteria predict the strain distributions in the final cup quite accurately. However, improved knowledge concerning the stress states is still required, because the Hill48 criterion showed difficulties in the correct prediction of the springback, whatever the type of finite element adopted.     

Isogeometric analysis of a dynamic thermo-mechanical phase-field model applied to shape memory alloys

This paper focuses on the numerical simulation of martensitic transformations in shape memory alloys (SMAs) using a phase-field model. We developed a dynamic thermo-mechanical model for SMAs, using strain based order parameter, having a bi-directional coupling between structural and thermal physics via strain, strain rate and temperature. The model involves fourth order spatial derivatives representing a domain wall. We propose an isogeometric analysis numerical formulation for straightforward solution to the fourth order differential equations. We present microstructure evolution under different loading conditions and dynamic loading simulations of the evolved microstructures of SMAs of different geometries to illustrate the flexibility, accuracy and stability of our numerical method. The simulation results are in agreement with the numerical and experimental results from the literature.     

Dynamic tensile deformation and fracture of metal cylinders at high strain rates

An experimental study has been presented on the radial deformation of aluminium and copper cylinders of internal diameter 52 mm and wall thickness 1–7 mm, internally loaded with high explosives. High speed photography and flash radiography have been employed to record the distance–time (x–t) history of the cylinder wall, which has been found to expand under strain rates of 10⁴–10⁵ s⁻¹. The rupture of the cylinder is identified by the leakage of detonation gases, through the cracks in the cylinder wall. Rupture strains of 70–160% have been found for commercially pure aluminium. For a fixed wall thickness, the rupture strain increases with the strain rate. However, when the cylinder wall thickness is changed, a maximum is observed in a graph showing the strain and strain rate relationship. Aluminium appears to follow the Ivanov rupture criteria. From the experimental data the macroscopic viscosity coefficient for aluminium has been found to be 0.55–0.87×10³ Pa s. In the deformation of a copper cylinder the cracks initiate at strains of 30–60%, followed by rupture at very high strains up to 300%. The crack propagation velocity through the copper cylinder wall has been found to be 250–300 m/s. Recovered fragments show wall thinning by 50–60% and also exhibit shear fracture which dominates the radial fracture in high velocity deformation of the metal cylinder.     

方管旋压缩径工艺研究

采用旋压缩径工艺将矩形截面管缩成圆形截面管,利用Abaqus软件对旋压缩径工艺进行数值模拟,分析成形过程中的应力应变分布、壁厚变化规律、轴向长度变化及载荷变化规律,对成形中产生的缺陷进行分析,并优化工艺。实验结果验证了成形方案的可行性,并得到较好的成形结果。     

Slab analysis of roll bonding of silver clad phosphor bronze sheets

Abstract

A numerical analysis program, based on slab analysis, was developed to calculate the stresses and strains that occur in the component layers of a composite sheet in the roll bite during the fabrication of clad metal (e.g. silver clad phosphor bronze) by roll bonding. Results calculated using the perfect plastic and strain hardening models were compared with experimental results: the results obtained using the strain hardening model were found to be in better agreement with values of rolling force and thickness of component layers measured after roll bonding. The program requires input data such as roll radius, initial thickness of the specimen, initial cladding thickness fraction, reduction ratio, coefficients of friction between rolls and material and between component layers, and front and back tensions. The coefficients of friction were evaluated indirectly by comparison of the measured rolling force with that calculated using slab analysis. Measured coefficients of friction varied with reduction ratio and initial thickness, but were independent of rolling speed.

MST/1334     

Mathematical model of deformation and microstructural evolution during hot rolling of aluminium alloy 5083

Abstract

A mathematical model to predict the through thickness temperature, strain and strain rate distributions during hot rolling and the subsequent microstructure evolution was developed using the commercial finite element package ABAQUS. Microstructure evolution predictions included the amount of recrystallisation through the thickness of the sheet based on its thermomechanical history during rolling and thermal history after rolling. The equations used to predict the microstructure evolution were based on semiempirical relationships found in the literature for a 5083 aluminium alloy. Validation of the model predictions was done using comprehensive experimental measurements which were conducted using the Corus research multimill, a pilot scale experimental rolling facility, in Ijmuiden, The Netherlands. The results indicate that the through thickness temperature and strain distribution predictions for the rolling operation are reasonable. Hence, the boundary conditions used in the finite element model adequately represent the interface heat transfer and friction conditions. Microstructure predictions using the literature based equations significantly underestimate the amount of recrystallisation occurring in the sheet. A sensitivity analysis indicates that the recrystallisation kinetics are extremely sensitive to the fitting parameters used in the microstructure equation, and that the gradient in the recrystallisation kinetics is the result of the temperature gradient experienced by the specimen during deformation.     

Reduction of influence of variation in center frequencies of RF echoes on estimation of artery-wall strain

Atherosclerotic change of the arterial wall leads to a significant change in its elasticity. For assessment of elasticity, measurement of arterial wall deformation is required. For motion estimation, correlation techniques are widely used, and we have developed a phase-sensitive correlation method, namely, the phased-tracking method, to measure the regional strain of the arterial wall due to the heartbeat. Although phase-sensitive methods using demodulated complex signals require less computation in comparison with methods using the correlation between RF signals or iterative methods, the displacement estimated by such phase-sensitive methods are biased when the center frequency of the RF echo apparently varies. One of the reasons for the apparent change in the center frequency would be the interference of echoes from scatterers within the wall. In the present study, a method was introduced to reduce the influence of variation in the center frequencies of RF echoes on the estimation of the artery-wall strain when using the phase-sensitive correlation technique. The improvement in the strain estimation by the proposed method was validated using a phantom. The error from the theoretical strain profile and the standard deviation in strain estimated by the proposed method were 12.0% and 14.1%, respectively, significantly smaller than those (23.7% and 46.2%) obtained by the conventional phase-sensitive correlation method. Furthermore, in the preliminary in vitro experimental results, the strain distribution of the arterial wall well corresponded with pathology, i.e., the region with calcified tissue showed very small strain, and the region almost homogeneously composed of smooth muscle and collagen showed relatively larger strain and clear strain decay with respect to the radial distance from the lumen.