Effects of an evoked refreshing consumption context on hedonic responses to apple juice measured using best–worst scaling and the 9-pt hedonic category scale

Awareness of the need to consider a product’s consumption context when measuring consumer hedonic response of a product is increasing among consumer sensory researchers. This study investigated the effects of evoking a consumption context using a written scenario on hedonic response measured using best–worst scaling and the 9-pt hedonic category scale. Hedonic responses for four apple juices with relatively large sensory differences were compared when measured in the evoked context ‘when having something refreshing to drink’ using best–worst hedonic scaling (n = 65) and the 9-pt hedonic scale (n = 48). Best–worst scaling discriminated between the four apple juices when a refreshing context was evoked (p < 0.01), while the juices were equally liked using the 9-point scale (p = 0.41) when the same context was evoked. Consumers perceived best–worst scaling to be more difficult than the 9-pt scale, however there was no difference between the two methods for consumers perceived accuracy of their liking information. The present study highlights that the effect of an evoked context on hedonic response may not be universal for hedonic methods. Further research is needed to understand the effect of evoking context on the liking of products, and to determine whether this measure reflects product liking in an actual consumption context.     

The concurrent use of JAR and CATA questions in hedonic scaling is unlikely to cause hedonic bias,but may increase product discrimination

The concurrent use of CATA questions (check-all-that-apply) with hedonic scaling in product research with consumers has gained acceptance in recent years. However, CATA questions do not enable product developers to identify consumers’ preferred intensity of a sensory attribute directly, and for this reason just-about-right (JAR) questions are sometimes used together with questions that quantify attribute presence and/or intensity. Using JAR questions, consumers have to describe each of the samples in terms of each specific attribute, typically: 1 = ‘Not enough…’, 3 = ‘Just about right’, and 5 = ‘Much too…’. Past research has suggested that co-elicitation of hedonic and JAR responses bias the hedonic data. This undesired effect could extend to the case where JAR questions are used concurrently with hedonic and CATA questions. In seven studies (N = 762) across seven product categories no such evidence was found. Additionally, there was some evidence pointing to an increase in product discrimination based on hedonic and CATA responses. Preliminary data indicated that the inclusion of JAR questions in product tests also eliciting hedonic and CATA responses did not negatively affect consumers’ perception of the task, which, on average, was still regarded as easy and not tedious. Future research is required to validate the findings across more varied experimental settings.     

RATA questions are not likely to bias hedonic scores

Concurrent elicitation of hedonic and sensory information from consumers helps to identify the sensory attributes that drive consumer preferences. However, there is a risk that asking consumers about specific sensory characteristics can bias their hedonic responses. This research extends previous work by investigating if concurrent use of rate-all-that-apply (RATA) questions, a variant of CATA questions is associated with bias of the hedonic scores. RATA questions extend CATA questions by requiring consumers to also rate the intensity of the terms that are applicable for describing samples (‘high’, ‘medium’ and ‘low’). In eight consumer studies (n = 560) across five product categories there was no evidence of concurrent use of RATA questions influencing hedonic scores. When RATA questions were used concurrently with a hedonic question there was a strong tendency for greater hedonic discrimination between samples (5 of 8 studies). This suggested that the discriminative capacity of the hedonic question was increased by inclusion of the RATA question, a result that could be attributable to the RATA question increasing consumers’ engagement and attention to the task. Further research is required to confirm this result and tentative explanation.     

Pleasantness,emotions and perceptions induced by coffee beverage experience depend on the consumption motivation (hedonic or utilitarian)

Motivations to consume a given food or drink differ across consumers. For instance, coffee drinking can be motivated by sensory enjoyment (hedonic motivation) or by stimulation (functional motivation). Today it remains unknown how hedonic vs. utilitarian motivations impact consumer–product interaction. The objective of the present research was to study the impact of both motivations on consumer responses (i.e. pleasantness, emotions, and importance and satisfaction for each of the five senses) during the entire experience of a coffee beverage. Sixty participants drinking coffee beverage either for sensory enjoyment (SENS, n = 30) or to be stimulated (STIM, n = 30) were recruited. Four moments of the product experience were considered: water heating, jar handling, cup preparation and cup drinking. Self-ratings were repeatedly performed by the participants after each moment. SENS participants depicted higher positive emotions than STIM participants and even if similar levels of pleasantness were reached after cup drinking by both groups, levels of pleasantness at water heating and jar handling moments differed. The importance and satisfaction for the different senses also changed according to the participant motivation to drink the coffee beverage. Marketing implications are discussed in terms of communication materials development to more strongly engage consumers with the product.     

The influence of product- and person-related factors on consumer hedonic responses to soy products

Consumers in Western countries increasingly appreciate health benefits of soy products. However, several barriers prevent full acceptance of these products. This study investigates the effects of product-related factors (perceived familiarity and expected healthiness) and person-related factors (food neophobia and health interest) on consumer hedonic responses to various soy products. In the pre-study, 48 German-speaking participants assessed the perceived familiarity, healthiness and tastiness for 21 soy products. In the main study, four soy products that differed in familiarity and healthiness were presented to German consumers (n = 327) as images supplemented by product names and slogans stressing either health or taste benefits. Participants rated their attitudes towards the product, product liking, taste expectations and willingness to try the products in a 2 (familiar or unfamiliar products) × 2 (healthy or tasty products) × 2 (low or high food neophobia) between-subject design. As hypothesized, neophilic consumers showed more positive responses to soy products compared to neophobic consumers. Neophobics showed more positive responses to familiar soy products, whereas the responses of neophilics were not influenced by product familiarity. Health interest positively influenced the willingness to try soy products. However, the effect of healthiness manipulation on hedonic responses to experimental products was not significant. The results of the study suggest that perceived familiarity might be more important for acceptance of soy products than expected healthiness. Successful marketing strategies for soy products should target neophobic consumers by increasing the level of familiarity of soy foods.     

Chemical compounds and sensory assessment of kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis (Planch.) var. chinensis): electrochemical and multivariate analyses

This study reports the analytical and sensory analyses made on selected kiwifruit genotypes (Actinidia chinensis (Planch.) var. chinensis) produced from seeds of fruit gathered in the Guangxi region of the People’s Republic of China. The analytical measurements of some soluble sugars, such as glucose and fructose, and non-volatile acids, such as malic and ascorbic acid, were carried out using innovative analytical procedures based on fast and selective devices that require very little or no sample treatment. The multivariate techniques, Principal Component Analysis and Cluster Analysis, useful when many variables are involved, allowed the classification of kiwifruit genotypes according to sugar and non-volatile acid contents and sensory properties. Citric acid, the major organic acid, ranged from 0.8 to 1.8 g per 100 g of fresh weight and malic acid content was 0.1–0.5 g per 100 g of fresh weight. The levels of fructose and glucose (present in approximately equal amounts in most of the genotypes analysed), were higher than that of sucrose in almost all the genotypes. Ascorbic acid content in kiwifruit samples from genotypes of Actinidia chinensis (Planch.) var. chinensis was higher than the typical mean content in Actinidia chinensis var. deliciosa (A Chev) cv Hayward. Sensory assessment showed that total fruit aroma and flavour were the best discriminating attributes and were highly correlated with overall quality. No consistent correlation was found between overall quality and the sensory attributes of sweetness, juiciness and firmness.     

Rejection thresholds (RjT) of sweet likers and dislikers

Sweetness is generally a desirable taste, however consumers can be grouped into sweet likers and dislikers according to optimally preferred sucrose concentrations. Understanding the levels of sweetness in products that are acceptable and unacceptable to both consumer groups is important to product development and for influencing dietary habits. The concentrations at which sucrose decreases liking (the rejection threshold; RjT) in liquid and semi-solid matrices were investigated in this study. Thirty six consumers rated their liking of 5 sucrose aqueous solutions; this identified 36% sweet likers (SL) whose liking ratings increased with increasing sucrose and 64% sweet dislikers (SD) whose liking ratings decreased above 6% (w/v) sucrose. We hypothesized that SL and SD would have different RjT for sucrose in products. This was tested by preparing 8 levels of sucrose in orange juice and orange jelly and presenting each against the lowest level in forced choice preference tests. In orange juice, as sucrose increased from 33 g/L to 75 g/L the proportion of people preferring the sweeter sample increased in both groups. However, at higher sucrose levels, the proportion of consumers preferring the sweet sample decreased. For SD, a RjT was reached at 380 g/L, whereas a significant RjT for SL was not reached. RjT in jelly were not reached as the sweetness in orange jelly was significantly lower than for orange juice (p < 0.001). Despite statistically significant differences in rated sweetness between SL and SD (p = 0.019), the extent of difference between the two groups was minor. The results implied that sweet liker status was not substantially related to differences in sweetness perception. Self-reported dietary intake of carbohydrate, sugars and sucrose were not significantly affected by sweet liker status. However the failure to find an effect may be due to the small sample size and future studies within a larger, more representative population sample are justifiable from the results of this study.     

PARAFAC: Adjustment for modeling consumer study covering probiotic and conventional yogurt

The feasibility of the parallel factors model (PARAFAC) as a modeling tool for consumer sensory acceptance data of complex food matrices was investigated. The attributes of aroma, flavor, taste, texture, and overall liking of probiotic and conventional yogurts were evaluated by 120 consumers using a 9-point hedonic hybrid scale. Six yogurt samples were used: three were prototypes supplemented with a glucose oxidase/glucose system, which is a potential oxygen scavenging system, and the other three were commercial yogurts. The yogurts supplemented with the glucose oxidase/glucose system presented similar sensory acceptance towards commercial probiotic and conventional yogurts (p > 0.05), besides having garnered lower mean scores for the sensory attributes. Appearance and overall liking were the most significant attributes for the first two components of the PARAFAC model. Finally, the advantage of using this method to explore the intrinsic nature of consumer sensory data is discussed and compared to principal component analysis (PCA).     

Physicochemical characteristics and sensory optimisation of pineapple leather snack as affected by glucose syrup and pectin concentrations

Effects of glucose syrup (2%, 4%, and 6%) and pectin (0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5%) concentrations on physicochemical characteristics and sensory acceptability of machine‐formed pineapple leather snack were investigated. Changes in glucose syrup and pectin concentrations significantly affected velocity of forming and total soluble solids content of pineapple paste, but did not affect thickness of pineapple leathers. Increasing pectin concentrations generally increased redness (a*) and yellowness (b*), and hardness (tensile force and work) while decreased moisture content and a_w of pineapple leathers. Two most acceptable pineapple leathers were prepared with 6% glucose syrup and 0.5–1.0% pectin. Increasing pectin concentration from 1.0% to 1.5% negatively affected toughness acceptability, which was attributed to reduced moisture and a_w, and increased tensile force and work. The optimum formulation range consisted of 3.5–6.0% glucose syrup and 0.5–1.0% pectin, yielding products with acceptability scores of 6.7–7.3 (on a 9‐point hedonic scale) for appearance, sourness, sweetness, overall‐taste, toughness and overall‐liking.     

Effect of varying salt and fat levels on the sensory and physiochemical quality of frankfurters

The sensory and physiochemical properties of frankfurters with varying fat and salt levels were investigated. Twenty frankfurter formulations were produced with varying concentrations of fat (10%, 15%, 20%, 25% w/w) and salt (1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, 3% w/w). Frankfurters were assessed instrumentally for colour, moisture, fat, cooking loss and texture profile analysis. Consumers (n = 25) evaluated each product in duplicate for colour, coarseness, tenderness, juiciness, salt taste, meat flavour, off-flavour and overall acceptability using a hedonic scale. Salt levels below 1.5% were shown to have a negative effect on consumer acceptability, with 2.5% salt concentration being the most accepted (P < 0.001) by consumers. However, frankfurters containing the lower fat levels 10% and 15% fat with higher salt levels (2.5–3%) were significantly the most acceptable variants to consumers. Samples containing less fat and salt were found to be tougher, less juicy and had greater cooking losses. Thus salt perception is very important for consumer acceptability, but fat levels can be potentially reduced without significantly affecting overall acceptability.     

Comparative performance of the nine-point hedonic,hybrid and self-adjusting scales in the generation of internal preference maps

This study evaluated the performance of the nine-point hedonic, hybrid and self-adjusting scales in the segmentation of samples and consumers using MDPREF methodology. Overall acceptability of eight Cabernet Sauvignon red wines was evaluated by 112 consumers using the three scales mentioned above. Both the scale’s and the sample’s presentation order were balanced among the consumers. The data were analyzed by ANOVA, REGWQ test, MDPREF and permutation tests. Scales’ performance was judged using the following criteria: number of significant dimensions (p = 5%) in the MDPREF, number of significantly fitted consumers (p = 5%) and segmentation of the products and consumers. The MDPREF generated by the hybrid scale data produced the greatest number of significant dimensions (p = 5%), yielding 79.5% of significantly fitted consumers (p = 5%), while the MDPREFs of the self-adjusting and the nine-point scales fitted 54.5% and 51.8% of the consumers, respectively. Overall, the results indicated superiority of the hybrid scale over the traditional hedonic and self-adjusting scales.     

The consumer acceptance of novel vegetable-enriched bread products as a potential vehicle to increase vegetable consumption

Currently UK fruit and vegetable intakes are below recommendations. Bread is a staple food consumed by approximately 95% of adults in western countries. In addition, bread provides an ideal matrix by which functionality can be delivered to the consumer in an accepted and convenient food. Therefore, enriching bread with vegetables may be an effective strategy to increase vegetable consumption. This study evaluated bread enriched with red beetroot, carrot with coriander, red pepper with tomato or white beetroot (40 g vegetable per 100 g) compared to white control bread (0 g vegetable) for consumer acceptance. Consumers (n = 120) rated their liking of the breads overall, as well as their liking of appearance, flavour and texture using nine-point hedonic scales. Product replacement and purchase intent of the breads were rated using five-point scales. The effect of providing consumers with health information about the breads was also evaluated. There were significant differences in overall liking (P < 0.0001), as well as liking of appearance (P < 0.0001), flavour (P = 0.0002) and texture (P = 0.04), between the breads. However, the significant differences resulted from the red beetroot bread which was significantly (P < 0.05) less liked compared to control bread. There were no significant differences in overall liking between any of the other vegetable-enriched breads compared with the control bread (no vegetable inclusion). The provision of health information about the breads did not increase consumer liking of the vegetable-enriched breads. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that vegetable-enriched bread appeared to be an acceptable strategy to increase vegetable intake, however, liking depended on vegetable type.     

Static vs. dynamic liking in chewing gum: A new approach using a background task and a natural setting

Chewing gum is a particular product, consumed during long periods of time and usually while doing something else. Therefore, traditional hedonic tests might not provide sufficient information. The aim of the present work was to compare the liking scores resulting from asking consumers whether they liked the product only once (static liking, SL) to those obtained when asking repeatedly during consumption (dynamic liking, DL). For this purpose, three different mint chewing gums were evaluated by two groups of 50 consumers. In both cases, consumers evaluated the samples at home using an Internet application specifically designed for the experiment. In the SL, consumers were prompted to rate their liking only after 5 min of chewing. During this time, consumers were presented with a series of curious facts (“Did you know…?”) which they would read from the screen as a background task. For the DL, consumers were asked to rate the samples every 45 s during a period of 10 min while performing the same background task, having a maximum of 10 s to answer.Comparing the results obtained by both techniques at the same moment of consumption (5 min), ratings were found to be significantly higher with the SL for all samples. This could indicate that, when asked once, consumers gave their overall liking score and not their liking at precisely 5 min. Nonetheless, at that moment, the sample ranking was the same for both methods. Moreover, DL showed that when taking into account preference throughout consumption time, a significant product ranking inversion could be found, revealing that preference was time dependent and also that this change was different among products.     

Consumer segmentation based on food neophobia and its application to product development

When evaluating the acceptability of food products, companies often focus on specific demographics for recruiting and screening consumers. However, this information may not necessarily explain the variability in the test results. Other elements, such as consumer psychographic profiles, may help better understand test participants’ responses. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of food neophobia (reluctance to/avoidance of novel foods) on acceptability of novel food items. Six salad dressings with novel flavor combinations were chosen for evaluation in a central location test. Consumers were screened using the food neophobia scale (Pliner & Hobden, 1992) as well as liking of salad dressings. Each subject evaluated three of six dressings for hedonic and diagnostic attributes. Neophobic subjects rated the salad dressings significantly lower (p < 0.05) than neophilics for all hedonic attributes with the exception of appearance. These results were consistent for all dressings. However, when looking at the hedonic mean scores from both groups, the products were ranked in similar order in that the best liked and least liked dressing for the neophilic group was the same as those for the neophobic group. For diagnostic attributes, while the mean scores were significantly different for neophobics and neophilics, the percentage of “just-about-right” scores did not differ. These results suggest that food neophobia may impact the degree with which a product is liked or disliked by consumers, but it may not affect how products are ranked based on hedonic mean scores. Therefore, while understanding the psychographic composition of a consumer test respondent base may help explain why some products score higher or lower in acceptability, it may not alter the sensory guidance provided to product development regarding the specific flavor and texture attributes that were tested.     

Chemical and quality traits of ‘Olinda’ and ‘Campbell’ oranges after heat treatment at 44 or 46 °C for fruit fly disinfestation

The chemical and quality characteristics of ‘Olinda’ and ‘Campbell’ oranges (nucellar budlines from Valencia late cultivar) were evaluated after exposure to a fruit core temperature of 44 °C and held at 44 °C for 100 min or 46 °C and held at 46 °C for 50 min, subsequent storage at 6 °C for 2 weeks and an additional week of simulated marketing period (SMP) at 20 °C. Exposure to either heat treatment caused neither visible damage nor fruit softening. Fruit weight loss rate in ‘Olinda’ oranges was unaffected by treatment but was higher than control fruit in heat exposed ‘Campbell’ oranges after storage, though at the end of SMP differences between treated and untreated fruit were non-significant. While neither heat treatment affected decay incidence in ‘Olinda’ oranges, significantly less decay was found in heat treated ‘Campbell’ fruit compared to control fruit both during storage and SMP.The chemical analyses of flavedo tissue of ‘Olinda’ oranges revealed that there were no treatment differences in neutral sugars, soluble and insoluble pectins and calcium bound to insoluble pectin fraction. The calcium content bound to soluble pectin fractions increased following heat treatments. At the end of SMP there was a significant decrease of soluble pectin and a significant increase of calcium bound to insoluble pectins in flavedo from oranges of the 46 and 44 °C treatments.Following treatment at 46 °C ‘Olinda’ fruit had a significantly lower content of soluble solids concentration. However, differences in soluble solids concentration between treated and control fruit after storage and SMP were not significant.Post-treatment levels of ethanol in both cultivars were significantly higher than in non-treated fruit. During storage and SMP, significant increases of ethanol were detected in control fruits with respect to their initial levels, whereas a reverse trend occurred in fruit subjected to heat treatment. Upon termination of the heat treatment at 44 or 46 °C, mean taste scores of ‘Olinda’ oranges were lower than those of untreated fruit, while the taste of ‘Campbell’ oranges was adversely affected only by the 46 °C treatment. After storage and SMP, taste differences between treated and control fruit were not significant. Flavour scores were unaffected by the treatment at 44 °C. Following treatment at 46 °C flavour rating in ‘Olinda’ fruit was significantly lower than control fruit while after storage and SMP the differences in flavour scores between treated and untreated fruit were non significant. Heat treatment to a fruit core temperature of 44 °C for 100 min or 46 °C for 50 min can thus have important commercial applications as an alternative to toxic chemical fumigants or to longer and more expensive disinfestation treatments such as cold quarantine.