Mode III fatigue delamination growth of glass fiber reinforced polymer woven laminates at cryogenic temperatures

This paper investigates the cryogenic fatigue delamination behavior of glass fiber reinforced polymer woven laminates under Mode III loading. Fatigue delamination tests were conducted using split cantilever beam specimens at room temperature, liquid nitrogen temperature (77 K) and liquid helium temperature (4 K). A finite element analysis was also employed to calculate the energy release rate. The temperature dependence of the fatigue delamination growth rate vs. energy release rate range is discussed. Fracture surfaces were examined by scanning electron microscopy to identify the delamination mechanisms under fatigue loading. The important conclusion we reach is that the Mode III fatigue delamination growth rates of woven laminates at cryogenic temperatures are lower than that at room temperature.     

Cryogenic delamination growth in woven glass/epoxy composite laminates under mixed-mode I/II fatigue loading

This paper investigates the fatigue delamination growth behavior in woven glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite laminates under mixed-mode I/II conditions at cryogenic temperatures. Fatigue delamination tests were performed with the mixed-mode bending (MMB) test apparatus at room temperature, liquid nitrogen temperature (77 K) and liquid helium temperature (4 K), in order to obtain the delamination growth rate as a function of the range of the energy release rate, and the dependence of the delamination growth behavior on the temperature and the mixed-mode ratio of mode I and mode II was examined. The energy release rate was evaluated using three-dimensional finite element analysis. The fractographic examinations by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were also carried out to assess the mixed-mode fatigue delamination growth mechanisms in the woven GFRP laminates at cryogenic temperatures.     

Delamination growth mechanisms in woven glass fiber reinforced polymer composites under Mode II fatigue loading at cryogenic temperatures

The purpose of this research is to characterize the cryogenic delamination growth behavior in woven glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite laminates subjected to Mode II fatigue loading. Mode II fatigue delamination tests were performed at room temperature, liquid nitrogen temperature (77 K) and liquid helium temperature (4 K) using the four-point bend end-notched flexure (4ENF) test method, and the delamination growth rate data for the woven GFRP laminates were obtained. The energy release rate range was determined by the finite element method. Microscopic examinations of the specimen sections and fracture surfaces were also carried out. The present results are discussed to obtain an understanding of the fatigue delamination growth mechanisms in the woven GFRP laminates under Mode II loading at cryogenic temperatures.     

Fatigue delamination growth in woven glass/epoxy composite laminates under mixed-mode II/III loading conditions at cryogenic temperatures

We investigate the cryogenic delamination growth behavior in woven glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite laminates under mixed-mode II/III fatigue loading. Fatigue delamination tests were conducted with six-point bending plate (6PBP) specimens at room temperature, liquid nitrogen temperature (77 K) and liquid helium temperature (4 K), and the delamination growth rate data for various mixed-mode ratios of Modes II and III were obtained. The energy release rate was evaluated using the three-dimensional finite element method. In addition, the fatigue delamination growth mechanisms were characterized by scanning electron microscopic observations of the specimen fracture surfaces.     

High temperature fatigue deformation behaviors of thermally sprayed steel measured with electronic speckle pattern interferometry method

High temperature fatigue (R=0) damage and deformation behaviors of SUS304 steel thermally sprayed with Al₂O₃/NiCr coating were investigated using an electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI) method. Surface cracks and delamination occurred after 1×10⁵ cycles test when σ_max was 202 MPa at 873 K. The lengths and number of cracks and delamination largely decreased when σ_max or temperature decreased to 115 MPa or 573 K, respectively. Strain values along cracks measured with the ESPI method were much larger than other areas due to crack opening under the tensile load. The positions of strain concentration zones on strain distribution figures by ESPI method were well corresponded to those of cracks on sprayed coatings. Strain values decreased largely where local delamination occurred.     

Influence of the matrix constituent on mode I and mode II delamination toughness in fiber-reinforced polymer composites under cyclic fatigue

Mode I and mode II fracture behaviour under static and dynamic loading was analyzed in two composites made up of the same reinforcement though embedded in two different matrices. Specifically, the delamination energy under static and dynamic loading was obtained for both materials and both fracture modes, i.e. the number of cycles necessary for the onset of fatigue delamination. Subsequently, the crack growth rate (delamination rate) was obtained for different percentages of the critical energy rate. The main goal of the study was to ascertain the influence of the matrix on the behaviour of the laminate under fatigue loading.From the experimental results for the onset of delamination, similar fatigue behaviour was observed at a low number of cycles for both matrices and both fracture modes, while in fatigue at a high number of cycles, a higher fatigue limit was obtained in the composite with the modified resin (higher toughness) for both fracture modes. From the point of view of crack growth rate, both materials behaved similarly for different levels of stress under fatigue and the two fracture modes for small crack lengths (initial growth zone < 5 mm), although the growth rate increased for large crack lengths. This behaviour was the same in both loading modes.     

Fatigue behaviour of tensile steel/CFRP joints

In this paper the fatigue performance of tensile steel/CFRP (Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer) double shear lap joints is discussed. Joints were realized with two steel plates and two CFRP strips bonded using epoxy adhesive. Fatigue tests were performed on 16 specimens under constant stress range loading cycles. Two stress ratios (R = 0.1 and R = 0.4) were considered to investigate their influence on the fatigue lifetime. Debonding was observed to occur at stress concentration zones and propagate along the CFRP/adhesive interfaces. The stiffness degradation of the steel joint due to progressive debonding of the adhesive represents an index for the subsequent and progressive global failure. S–N curves are defined and compared to the fatigue resistance of welded detail categories of the Eurocode 3. The tests showed that the stress ratio, R, has a marginal influence on the fatigue lifetime of the steel/CFRP double shear lap joints. Finally, a fatigue limit corresponding to a stress range in the steel plate equal to 75 MPa was conservatively estimated during the tests. The fatigue limit seems to be insensitive to the stress ratio R.     

Fatigue life predictions using fracture mechanics methods

In the present work, a simple engineering approach which is based on a relatively solid background and which is checked against fatigue test data for various test conditions was developed: it may provide a practical and reliable basis for the analysis of structures under in-service loading conditions, in the presence of previous corrosion attack, or in the presence of a residual stress field, by using widespread fracture mechanics software. In particular, the approach was checked against an experimental program which consists of the following fatigue tests: base and friction stir welded (FSW) material under constant amplitude loading at different loading ratios (R = 0.1, 0.5, −1); pre-corroded base and FSW material under constant amplitude loading at load ratio R = 0.1; centre hole FSW specimens under the standardised variable amplitude loading spectrum FALSTAFF. Moreover, from the literature fatigue experiments under FALSTAFF of cold expanded as well as not cold expended holes were also used to validate the approach. The predictions were performed with the last version of AFGROW and NASGRO 3.0 software.     

Failure and strength of 2D-C/SiC composite under in-plane shear loading at elevated temperatures

In-plane shear strength (IPSS) of a two-dimensional carbon fiber reinforced silicon carbide composite (C/SiC) was measured by compression of double-notched specimens (DNS) from room temperature to 1873 K. The result indicates that the compression of DNS is an effective method to measure IPSS of C/SiC. A significant dependence of IPSS on temperature was found for C/SiC. IPSS increases with increasing temperature up to 1273 K, and then decreases when the temperature was higher. The main failure modes under the shear loading contain matrix cracking, delamination and pullout of fibers and fiber bundles.     

Cryogenic fatigue behavior of plain weave glass/epoxy composite laminates under tension-tension cycling

This paper focuses on understanding the tension-tension fatigue behavior of woven glass fiber reinforced polymer laminates at cryogenic temperatures. Tension-tension fatigue tests at frequencies of 4 and 10 Hz with a stress ratio of 0.1 were conducted at room temperature, 77 and 4 K. The fatigue stress versus cycles to failure (S-N) relationships and fatigue limits for 10⁶ cycles were obtained. Fractured specimens tested under fatigue tests were also examined with optical microscope.     

Numerical simulation of fatigue crack growth behavior by crack-tip blunting

In ductile metals one of basic mechanisms for fatigue crack growth is that based on crack-tip blunting under the maximum load and re-sharpening of the crack-tip under minimum load. In this paper, simulations of fatigue crack growth by crack-tip blunting using ANSYS finite element code are presented. This investigation focuses solely on simulation of fatigue crack growth due to crack-tip plasticity only. As such, any material damage and its fracture is not considered. Due to high plastic deformation the present simulations utilize a remeshing technique which allows applying a number of load cycles without terminating the simulation due to the error caused by excessive mesh distortion. The simulations were conducted using a center cracked specimen under various loading conditions including different load ranges and load ratios R = −1, 0 and 0.333. It is shown that fatigue crack growth (FCG) slows down with number of cycles towards a steady state value. The simulated FCG data for constant amplitude loading follow the Paris power law relationship and also indicate a typical R-ratio dependence. It can be noted that for all load cases with load ratios R > 0 no crack closure in the vicinity of the crack-tip wake was observed.     

Influence of temperature on the delamination process under mode I fracture and dynamic loading of two carbon–epoxy composites

This paper experimentally analyzes the influence of temperature and type of matrix on the delamination process of two composites subjected to fatigue loading through the study of their fracture under mode I behavior. The materials were manufactured with the same AS4 unidirectional carbon reinforcement and two epoxy matrices with different fracture behavior. The chosen temperatures for the experiments were 20 (room temperature), 50 and 90 °C.The experimental study carried out under dynamic loading enabled the authors to determine the influence that temperature has on the onset of delamination for the entire range of fatigue life of the material, from the low number of cycles zone to the high number of cycles zone. That is, it enabled the plotting of fatigue curves, represented as G_Imax–N (number of cycles required for the onset of delamination given a certain energy release rate) for an asymmetry coefficient of 0.2 (the ratio between the maximum and minimum fracture energies applied during the dynamic tests).The experimental data obtained were treated with a probabilistic model based on a Weibull distribution which allowed the identification of relevant aspects of the fatigue behavior of the materials such as the estimation of fatigue strength for periods greater than the tested values and the analysis of the reliability of the results.     

3D damage characterisation and the role of voids in the fatigue of wind turbine blade materials

The fatigue mechanisms of Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) used in wind turbine blades were examined using computed tomography (CT). Prior to mechanical testing, as-manufactured [+45/−45/0]_3,s glass/epoxy specimens were CT scanned to provide 3-dimensional images of their internal microstructure, including voids. Voids were segmented and extracted, and individual characteristics and volumetric distributions were quantified. The coupons were then fatigue tested in uniaxial loading at R = −1% to 40% of the nominal tensile failure stress. Some tests were conducted to failure for correlation with the initial void analysis and to establish failure modes. Other tests were stopped at various life fractions and examined using CT to identify key damage mechanisms. These scans revealed transverse matrix cracking in the surface layer, occurring predominantly at free edges. These free-edge cracks then appeared to facilitate edge delamination at the 45/−45° interface. Propagation from sub-critical, surface ply damage to critical, inner ply damage was identified with either a −45/0° delamination, or a 0° fibre tow failure allowing a crack to propagate into the specimen bulk. Final failure occurred in compression and was characterised by total delamination between all the 45/−45° plies. A quantitative void analysis, taken from the pre-test CT scans, was also performed and compared against the specimens’ fatigue lives. This analysis, to the authors’ knowledge the first of its kind, measured and plotted approximately 10,000 voids within the gauge length of each specimen. The global void measurement parameters and distributions showed no correlation with fatigue life. A local ply-level investigation revealed a significant correlation between the largest void and fatigue life in the region of the laminate associated with the crack propagation from sub-critical to critical damage.     

Simple and inexpensive technique for measuring the transition temperature of superconducting thick films from 60 to 300 K using liquid nitrogen and subcooled liquid oxygen

This paper describes a simple and low-cost experimental setup intended for AC susceptibility measurements between 60 and 300 K. A mutual inductance bridge for measuring the transition temperature of high-T_c superconductor thick films was constructed. The device is based on using liquid nitrogen and subcooled liquid oxygen; it allows temperatures down to 60 K to be achieved. Experimental details are described and illustrative measurements on high-T_c superconductor thick films are included.     

Modeling of the dynamic delamination of L-shaped unidirectional laminated composites

One of the widely used geometrically complex parts in advanced commercial aircraft is the L-shaped composite. Due to the sharp curved geometry, interlaminar opening stresses are induced and delamination occurs under considerable mode-mixities in L-shaped beams. Dynamic phenomena during delamination initiation and propagation of L-shaped beams are investigated using dynamic (explicit) finite element analysis in conjunction with cohesive zone methods. The 2-D model consists of 24 plies of unidirectional CFRP laminate with an initial 1 mm crack at the center of the laminate at the bend. Loading is applied parallel to one of the arms quasi-statically. The loading type yields different traction fields and mode-mixities in the two sides of the crack in which delamination occurs under shear stress dominated loading on one crack tip and opening stress dominated loading on the other. The speed of the delamination under shear dominated loading at one side is 800 m/s and under normal stress dominated loading is 50 m/s. In addition radial compressive waves at the interface are observed. Finally, as the thickness is changed, a different failure mode is observed in which a secondary crack nucleates at the arm and propagates towards the center crack.     

Investigation of the effect of composition on microhardness and determination of thermo-physical properties in the Zn–Cu alloys

Zinc–copper of (99.99%) high purity alloys were directionally solidified upward with different compositions, C_o, Zn–(0.7,1.5, 2.4 and 7.37) wt.% Cu under two different solidification conditions (G = 3.85 K/mm, V = 0.0083 mm/s and G = 8.70 K/mm, V = 0.436 mm/s) using a Bridgman type directional solidification apparatus. The measurements of microhardness of directionally solidified samples were made by using a microhardness test device. The dependence of microhardness (HV) on composition was analyzed. According to these results, it has been found that the values of HV increase with the increasing Cu content (C_o). Variation of electrical resistivity (ρ) and electrical conductivity (σ) with the temperature were also measured by using a standard d.c. four-point probe technique. The enthalpy of fusion (ΔH) and specific heat (Cp) of the Zn–Cu alloys were determined from heating curve during the transformation from solid to liquid phase by using differential scanning calorimeter (DSC).     

Effect of loading type on fatigue properties of high strength bearing steel in very high cycle regime

Very high cycle fatigue tests under axial loading at frequencies of 95 Hz and 20 kHz were performed to clarify the effect of loading type on fatigue properties of a high strength bearing steel in combination with experimental result of this steel under rotating bending. As a result, this steel represents the single P-S-N (probabilistic-stress-life) curve characteristics for surface-induced fracture and interior inclusion-induced fracture, just like that under rotating bending. However, fatigue strength is lower, where the run-out stress at 10⁹ cycles is evaluated to be 588 MPa, less than that under rotating bending with about 858 MPa. Occurrence probability of larger and deeper inclusion-induced fracture is much higher than that under rotating bending. Furthermore, the formation process of fine granular area (FGA) is independent of the type and frequency of loading, which is very slow and is explained as the crack nucleation process under the special dislocation mechanism. The stress intensity factor range at the front of FGA, ΔK_FGA, is approximately regarded as the threshold value controlling the stable propagation of interior crack. For the control volume of specimen under axial loading, the estimated value of fatigue limit by FGA is similar to experimental run-out stress value at 10⁹ cycles, but that by inclusion is larger. However, the corresponding estimated results under rotating bending are all conservative.     

Magnetically actuated peel test for thin films

Delamination along thin film interfaces is a prevalent failure mechanism in microelectronic, photonic, microelectromechanical systems, and other engineering applications. Current interfacial fracture test techniques specific to thin films are limited by either sophisticated mechanical fixturing, physical contact near the crack tip, or complicated stress fields. Moreover, these techniques are generally not suitable for investigating fatigue crack propagation under cyclical loading. Thus, a fixtureless and noncontact experimental test technique with potential for fatigue loading is proposed and implemented to study interfacial fracture toughness for thin film systems. The proposed test incorporates permanent magnets surface mounted onto micro-fabricated released thin film structures. An applied external magnetic field induces noncontact loading to initiate delamination along the interface between the thin film and underlying substrate. Characterization of the critical peel force and peel angle is accomplished through in situ deflection measurements, from which the fracture toughness can be inferred. The test method was used to obtain interfacial fracture strength of 0.8-1.9 J/m² for 1.5-1.7 μm electroplated copper on natively oxidized silicon substrates.     

Surface crack and cracks networks in biaxial fatigue

Semi-elliptical fatigue crack growth in 304 L stainless steel, under biaxial loading, was investigated. Compared to those of through-cracks under uniaxial loading, the growth rate of surface cracks is increased by a non-singular compressive stress and reduced by a tensile stress, when R = 0. Plasticity-induced crack closure under biaxial loading was investigated through 3D finite element simulations with node release. Roughness and phase-transformation-induced closure effects were also discussed. The interactions in two-directional crack networks under biaxial tension were investigated numerically. It appears that the presence of orthogonal cracks should not be ignored. The beneficial influence of interaction-induced mode-mixities was highlighted.     

Interaction of laminate damage and adhesive disbonding in composite scarf joints subjected to combined in-plane loading and impact

Impact tests were carried out on composite laminates and composite scarf repairs, while both were subjected to in-plane loading with tensile pre-strain levels up to 5000 microstrain. The results show that pre-straining of the composite laminates has no noticeable influence on the size of the delamination area for the given impact energy of 8 J, which represents a typical barely-visible impact on thin-skin composite structures. For composite scarf joints, however, resulting damage has been found to be a combination of adhesive disbonding and matrix cracking (delamination and intraply cracking) in the composite laminate. The size of this mixed type of damage increases significantly with increasing pre-strain levels. A finite element model was developed to investigate the interaction between adhesive disbonding and composite delamination. The computational results reveal that both delamination and adhesive disbonding are dominated by the mode II fracture. Since the critical mode II fracture energy release rate for composite laminates (G_IIC = 1.08 kJ/m²) is much less than that pertinent to the adhesive (G_IIC = 3.73 kJ/m²), delamination tends to occur first in the composite laminates, which then shield the growth of disbonding in the adhesive.