收缩治理的理论模型、国际比较和关键政策领域研究

如何保障城市在人口收缩情景下实现平稳的发展转型,已经成为城市治理研究的重要课题。从长历史时期和大空间尺度看,城市的增长和收缩是高度关联的过程。基于这一点认识,文章首先解释了收缩城市文献中常引用的三种理论模型:生命周期模型、启发式模型和政治经济模型,它们为学者理解、总结和归纳收缩治理政策提供了三种截然不同的理论维度。其次,在综述大量案例研究的基础上,本文对美国、德国、法国、日本和中东欧部分国家的收缩治理模式进行了国际比较,分析其城市收缩特点、关键政策行动以及决策形成过程中的内外部条件。最后,本文在发掘全球收缩城市共性问题的基础上,结合我国城市收缩的现实情况,提炼出对我国收缩治理具有借鉴价值的三个政策领域:福利治理、形态管控和吸引力提升。     

国外收缩城市研究进展及其启示

随着全球化进程不断推进,城市 经济社会转型加快,城市发展出现分化,部 分城市出现了人口减少、经济下滑的收缩现 象,学界对城市收缩的关注也日趋增多。本文 回顾了国外对收缩城市的已有研究,梳理了 现有收缩城市研究最重要的三个主题,即收 缩城市的定义与识别、收缩城市的形成原因 与机制以及对收缩城市的政策响应,并提出 了对中国收缩城市研究的借鉴与启示。国外 现有的收缩城市研究逐渐关注城市收缩过程 的多尺度与多主体问题,聚焦多尺度要素和多 主体利益在城市收缩过程中所面临的问题。 针对中国特殊的国情和问题,我们应在国外 收缩城市研究的基础上,从收缩城市的社会 结构性问题、收缩城市的城市综合问题、城 市收缩过程的模拟与预测以及收缩城市的综 合管理政策等方面着手,尝试和开拓收缩城 市研究的重要方向。     

严寒地区的收缩城市研究——以俄罗斯克拉斯诺亚尔斯克地区的三个极地城市为例

城市收缩是发达国家和发展中国家普遍存在的一种国际化现象。以往研究表明,超过一半的俄罗斯城市经历了不同程度的收缩,这种情况在其气候条件恶劣的北方地区更为严重。本研究的目的是通过社会经济发展动态分析俄罗斯北部城市的收缩过程,首先对俄罗斯收缩城市研究现状进行了梳理和总结;在此基础上,选取过去30年中人口总数下降较为明显的三个北方城市--诺里尔斯克、杜丁卡和伊加尔卡作为案例城市,对其反映人均工业产出的经济指数(EI)和反映社会福利水平的社会指数(SI)进行计算,结果表明该地区北部城市社会经济发展呈现出不均衡增长的现象。本研究证实了城市的经济福祉与人口生活水平之间的直接关系,并揭示出俄罗斯当前政策对收缩城市支持性的不足。     

The Governance of a Shrinking City: Housing Renewal in the Liverpool Conurbation,UK

This paper contributes to an emerging international research agenda examining the governance of ‘shrinking’ (depopulating) cities. It presents the findings of recent empirical research into the governance of housing renewal in the Liverpool conurbation (Merseyside), UK. Housing is a policy area which is directly affected by changes in population trends, and so this study provides insights into the way the conurbation has responded to shrinkage with regard to this issue. This paper concludes that the Merseyside response bears similarities to other international studies of shrinking cities in displaying an interplay between local and wider actors seeking to address the specific problems being faced by the area. An increasing reliance upon private sector involvement has also been evident, concurring with the findings of other recent studies on housing renewal governance in the UK. However, while the agendas of local delivery bodies have aligned in implementing programmes, there have been conflicts with some local residents.     

Design strategies to respond to the challenges of shrinking city

Urban design decisions for shrinking cities need to take into account the quality of daily life of the community alongside with the built environment characteristics. However, little is known about why certain urban design strategies should be adopted in response to shrinkage. This paper examines approaches to influencing shrinkage through design, such as building a visible safety net for vulnerable populations, creating place-based social networks and reconfiguring the city’s stigmatized image. Based on the effects of each, four strategies are suggested for design practitioners and policy makers to choose and adopt during the plan-making processes.     

Scaling-down and scaling-up processes of territorial governance: cities and regions facing institutional reform and planning challenges

The process of territorial governance rescaling now ongoing in European countries concerns not only the devolution of competencies from central states to regional politico-administrative levels (towards federalism) but also a new role of institutions, agencies and companies operating in well-defined sectors. A complex – downward and upward – transfer of competencies, powers and resources is taking place. In particular, cities belong to specific territories, but are increasingly involved in large-scale processes as far as services and infrastructure construction and management are concerned, as well as economic and cooperation initiatives. This often requires the creation of regional or upper-scale agencies and companies.

The article focuses – within an analytical framework concerning the dynamics of regions and cities in the European space – on three cities in Northern Italy (Bolzano-Bozen, Trento and Verona) undergoing contradictory trends towards federalism, on the one hand, and policy integration at variable scales on specific issues – in a multi-level governance perspective – on the other hand. Finally, the role of strategic, spatial and urban planning processes and tools are analysed, drawing some conclusions of general interest.     

What we talk about when we talk about shrinking cities: The ambiguity of discourse and policy response in the United States

Although United States cities began to shrink in large numbers as early as the 1950s, the shrinking city discourse was obscured by the overriding “urban crisis” narrative, and did not emerge until much later, in the late the 1990s and 2000s. Rather than trigger national policy change, however, the discourse became the starting point for local action, epitomized in the efforts to address widespread housing abandonment through land banks and greening strategies, spearheaded by an informal alliance of local officials and both local and national sources of expertise, largely outside academia. At the same time, the term ‘shrinking city’ was widely seen as problematic outside scholarly circles, and a major element of the discourse was the ongoing search for acceptable terminology to refer to the class of shrinking cities. In the final analysis, however, the association of growth with success and shrinkage with failure in the urban lexicon remains largely unchallenged.     

Challenges of governance in two cross-border city regions: ‘CENTROPE’ and the ‘EuRegio Salzburg – Berchtesgadener Land – Traunstein’

Since the 1970s, spatial planning and urban/regional development policies have increasingly paid attention to challenges of city regions. In the Austrian context, two city regions are interesting in this respect: CENTROPE and the EuRegio Salzburg – Berchtesgadener Land – Traunstein. CENTROPE is the largest city region in Austria and is located at the borders to three other European countries. Currently, four European Member States are taking part in this cross-border region (Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, and Czech Republic; in total eight partner regions and nine partner cities). EuRegio Salzburg – Berchtesgadener Land – Traunstein covers parts of Bavaria (two ‘Landkreise’) and parts of the federal provinces of Salzburg and Upper Austria. These are cross-border city regions, which are mainly constructed politically and have to deal with a range of governance challenges. Both city regions have developed a certain set of measures to establish city regional governance, particularly through fostering thematically oriented cooperation between different city regional actors. In this article, CENTROPE and the EuRegio Salzburg – Berchtesgadener Land – Traunstein will be analysed comparatively with regard to their efforts to establish cross-border city regional governance. The yardstick for depicting developments regarding governance is derived from the literature about governance and city regional governance as well as by a certain theoretical understanding of space. Accordingly, the article argues for defining and analysing city regions more as places of social and political conflict, as sites of actors’ interests’ formation, hence as places, which are socially produced and reproduced. Against that background, the article will mainly address the following: (1) the most evident challenges for further developing cross-border city-regional governance in both regions, (2) the differences between the two regions in terms of governance structures and (3) relation between certain spatial and governance theories to understand the making of city regions.     

Representing urban shrinkage — The importance of discourse as a frame for understanding conditions and policy

How are shrinking cities perceived by scholars, policymakers and citizens in different national contexts, and how do their discourses affect the nation's policies toward those cities? Although the interest in urban shrinkage has steadily grown among scholars worldwide during recent years, little has been written about these issues. This is the gap which the Special Issue “Urban shrinkage” presenting a cross-national comparison (Japan, US, Germany) seeks to fill. This article sets up the frame for the SI; we outline a circular relationship between conditions of shrinkage, the discourse and the design and implementation of policies to counteract challenges posed by shrinkage. We focus on six propositions with which we try to define the boundaries and limitations of the shrinking city literature. Afterwards, we present a model through which we interpret the triangular relationships of discourse, conditions and policy. Finally, we set the stage for the articles that follow.     

“精明收缩”理念下东北林区城镇规划应对——以内蒙古根河市为例

以人口缩减为主要特征的城市收缩现象已经成为我国城镇化过程中的常见新现象。文章分析了根河城市收缩的表象和原因,其收缩背景下的规划依然保持增长惯性,削弱了规划的科学性和权威性,导致规划的引导管控作用降低。结合根河实际,文章从规划理念、产业培育、空间优化、棕地更新等方面提出"精明收缩"理念下的规划应对建议,以期为相似的东北林区收缩城镇提供借鉴。     

精明收缩理念下城市空置问题的规划响应与启示——基于德国、美国和日本的比较

受金融危机冲击与产业经济转型的影响,我国部分城市出现了以人口减少为标志的城市收缩现象。如何处理和应对由于城市收缩引发的空置问题是当前空间规划和城市治理值得研究的课题。精明收缩提倡的"更小的用地范围内、更少的人口规模"的规划理念已经引起学界的广泛关注,但由于制度背景和规划文化的差异,不同国家所采取的政策态度与应对策略存在显著区别。本文通过梳理德国、美国和日本典型收缩城市形成的背景与动因,结合关键时间节点,分析这三个国家在应对城市空置问题的态度和演变,重点讨论不同政治文化背景下政府、社会组织、市场、公众等角色的作用。本研究有助于厘清精明收缩理念在我国城市规划领域的适用性,并为我国城市如何合理应对人口收缩下的城市空置问题提供经验启示。     

Multidimensional sustainability benchmarking for smart megacities

This paper is focused on sustainability assessment for some of the most prominent global megacities: London, New York, Hong Kong, Los Angeles, Sao Paolo, Rio de Janeiro, Paris, Berlin, Moscow, Beijing, Singapore, Shanghai, Sydney and Tokyo. The alternative city rankings are compared and linkages between different sustainability and smart city dimensions are explored. The paper applied ELECTRE III multi-criteria decision aid tool to a panel of twenty indicators. The proposed approach allowed considering performance under four different policy priorities: environmental, economic, social and smart, changing the focus of the sustainability assessment. The results have shown that Singapore dominates the sustainability rankings under environmental policy priorities. Tokyo leads under economic and social priorities, and London and Tokyo – under smart city priorities. The worst performing cities were Shanghai, Los Angeles and Rio de Janeiro. The paper examines the innovative sustainability strategy and new governance structures that led Singapore to become the most sustainable city under environmental priorities and offers recommendations for the lower-ranking cities of Shanghai, Los Angeles and Rio de Janeiro. The assessment could be a valuable tool for policy makers and investors, and could help identify linkages between different sustainability dimensions, highlighting best practices as well as strategic opportunities in cities with sustainability potential.     

精明收缩理念在美国锈带地区规划实践中的新进展:扬斯敦市社区行动规划研究

近年来,尽管以精简建成空间规模从而适应人口收缩为特点的"精明收缩"理念已经得到了越来越多学者的关注,但是其在规划实践领域的进展,尤其是在中微观的社区规划层面,还缺乏足够的研究。在收缩城市中,人口的迅速流失往往伴随着房地产市场的崩溃,大量房产出现空置与废弃的现象,并进一步导致了社区的衰败。如何在规划实践中对此进行积极应对,是目前国际收缩城市研究学者关注的核心议题之一。本文聚焦于全美第一个颁布"精明收缩"总体规划的扬斯敦市,关注其近年来为了应对上述问题颁布的社区行动规划。通过深入剖析社区行动规划的编制过程,以及实施中采用的两种政策性工具--税收止赎与法规实施,及其实施管理机构的运作模式,本文展现了美国收缩城市如何将应对房产空置与废弃的技术工具与社区规划较好地结合在一起,以及面临的困难与挑战。最后,本文就美国经验在我国的适用性与可借鉴性进行探讨,从而提出未来我国收缩城市在应对房产空置与废弃上的相关制度和规划改革建议。     

“收缩城市”研究的国际进展与启示

近年来,伴随着新的全球经济环境的出现,"收缩城市"(shrinking cities)现象在世界范围内的发生愈发普遍,对其关注也日益增多。在我国,随着"新常态"时期到来,经济增长速度放缓与结构优化进程不断推进,加上人口增长速度放缓与人口结构老龄化,收缩城市现象的发生也越来越普遍,然而,目前学术界和业界对其关注尚颇为欠缺。为此,本文依托已有文献与研究,系统阐释收缩城市的含义,围绕国际上关于收缩城市的议题,对这一领域的研究进展进行系统评述。在此基础上,对我国未来的收缩城市研究提出建议和展望,呼吁学界加大对收缩城市的研究与关注。     

Planning trajectories in post-socialist cities: patterns of divergence and change

This article explores the new planning regimes and planning processes in post-socialist countries and their ability to influence the spatial transformation of cities. It views planning institutions as culturally embedded in the overall process of economic, social, and political transition, while recognizing the power of specific local imperatives and market pressures to shape their response. The research draws on empirical evidence in four countries and their capital cities to highlight the links between the transition to democracy, markets, and decentralized governance on the spatial transformation in post-socialist cities. The main argument is that the new planning institutions have different ability to direct these processes of change, depending on the legal framework, the availability of plans, and the institutionalization of the plan-implementation process. Despite the diverse mosaic of urban experiences in Prague, Riga, Belgrade, and Tirana, planning institutions are viewed as path dependent, influenced by a common socialist legacy. Further, changes in the exogenous environment – economic, social, and institutional – are perceived to be important sources of convergence, but tend to shape different planning responses and policy choices. The research explores these differences as well as the new patterns of spatial transformation in three principal domains: (1) spaces of production/consumption reflecting the economic transition; (2) differentiation in residential spaces associated with the social transition; and (3) new approaches to planning and service delivery resulting from the transition in governance. Central to the arguments in the article is that transition of this magnitude has created a complex urban world in which the patterns of divergence are going to become more explicit in the future, producing spatial and temporal differentiation among post-socialist cities.     

Understanding the role of centralization processes for cities – Evidence from a spatial perspective of urban Europe 1990–2010

In the 21st century, the urban systems in most countries have undergone constant change, ranging between shrinkage, growth, and non-linear trajectories. All trends have an effect on the hinterland and are discussed in the context of agglomeration effects or hinterland shrinkage due to reurbanization. Thus, cities' population trajectories are not independent but rather is reinforced or runs contrary to the hinterland development.In order to simultaneously capture trends in cities and their hinterlands, urban life-cycle models are used. Using a systematic differentiation between the trend in the core and the hinterland, it is possible to distinguish between a stronger population growth of core cities and a situation in which the hinterland is growing faster – labeled centralization and decentralization, respectively. Developed in the 1980s, the widely used model of van den Berg reveals, however, some major drawbacks.Against this background, the paper will revisit van den Berg's et al. model and test it against the urban conditions in Europe between 1990 and 2010 by asking whether cities are decentralizing or centralizing and whether there are differences between growing and shrinking cities. The paper develops a city delineation, covering large and small cities, uses data about age structure, and applies an adapted model by measuring the intensity of the trends. The rapidly changing population trends since the beginning of the global economic crisis and its effects in Europe since 2008 require that more attention be paid to changing configurations between cities and processes beyond cities' borders, which is essential for both scholars and urban planners.     

Above-ground carbon storage by urban trees in Leipzig, Germany: Analysis of patterns in a European city

Many aspects of global change, including carbon dioxide emissions, have been attributed to urban areas. On the other hand, cities have been found to provide valuable ecosystem services such as carbon storage. The aim of this study is to estimate the above-ground carbon storage in trees in the central European city of Leipzig and produce spatially explicit carbon storage maps. We used stratified random sampling across 19 land cover classes using 190 sample plots to measure carbon storage. In addition, we derived canopy cover from color-infrared orthophotos using an object-oriented approach and Random Forest machine learning. Finally, we apply an error assessment method that includes sampling error, but also uncertainty stemming from allometric equations, and that so far has only been applied to rural forests. The total above ground carbon stock of Leipzig was estimated using both land cover and canopy cover, which was more laborious than just using land cover but reduced the standard error. Canopy cover was approximately 19% of the city area. Leipzig's above-ground carbon storage was estimated to be 316,000 Mg C at 11 Mg C ha⁻¹. The distribution of carbon storage across the city showed the highest values at intermediate urbanization levels. Carbon storage in the city of Leipzig was in the lower range compared to cities in Europe, Asia and the USA, and our results indicate that great care should be taken when transferring values between cities. We provide spatially explicit and detailed maps of above-ground storage that can contribute to ecosystem services assessments.     

Liveable Cities in Japan: Population Ageing and Decline as Vectors of Change

The challenge of creating liveable cities is emerging as a major policy priority around the world. Globalization, the emerging network society, increasing mobility, and the environmental, economic, health and social imperatives to create more sustainable and liveable cities have combined to increase pressures, primarily on local governments and actors to reinvigorate urban governance, urban planning and urban design. One essential aspect of this project is the improvement and vitalization of urban spaces. In this regard, Japan has significant challenges, stemming from its distinctive history of urban space management, its low proportion of public space in cities, and its aging and imminently shrinking population. At the same time, however, Japan has important opportunities and strengths stemming from its legacies of urban built form, the exceptional vigour of its place-based communities, and its rapidly aging and imminently shrinking population. This paper explores some of the opportunities and challenges facing attempts to build more liveable cities in Japan.     

Heritage amid an urban crisis: Historic preservation in Cleveland,Ohio's Slavic Village neighborhood

Cleveland, Ohio's Slavic Village is a shrinking neighborhood within a shrinking city that, in recent years, garnered national attention as an epicenter of the foreclosure crisis. High vacancy rates, deferred maintenance, vandalism, and low market-values present challenges to neighborhood leaders and policymakers. While demolition has dominated policy discourses in shrinking cities, Slavic Village's built environment is the tangible manifestation of the community's rich working-class and immigrant heritage. Thus, this research asks: In an era of urban shrinkage, what role do heritage and historic preservation play in stabilizing or revitalizing shrinking neighborhoods? Drawing on a qualitative case study of Slavic Village, the findings show that neighborhood leaders value heritage, yet historic fabric is in peril as traditional preservation regulations and incentives are insufficient given the scale of devastation. For historic preservation to retain relevance in places like Slavic Village, the profession needs to consider new, creative, even radical approaches that respond to the challenges of urban shrinkage.     

应对人口流失的景观设计改进方法:以美国宾夕法尼亚州约翰斯敦的 城市更新为例

Over the last 50 years, 370 large cities worldwide have severely depopulated, or shrunk, by at least 10%. Johnstown, Pennsylvania, is the third fastest U.S. shrinking city. Primarily a victim of deindustrialization, Johnstown faces severe decline issues related to depopulation, including social disorder and lowered quality of life. This project develops a framework for urban design for shrinking cities, integrating permanent functions into high development potential areas but temporary functions into declining areas. This approach allows for future development to occur through time as the city recovers. Using a GIS-based weighted overlay model to assess the threat level of decline, 4 sites were identified and strategies for each were developed. Master plans to retrofit new functions integrating residents' desire and demands into vacant / abandoned properties were then generated for each site. Rather than chasing hefty attempted quick-hitting developmental incentives, this approach will bring new long-term economic engines and lifestyles to the city due to a diversity in the economic base; it also pays attention to the social dimension of urban regeneration by providing a structured way to promoting social justice and equity in shrinking cities.