Monitoring of delamination onset and growth during Mode I and Mode II interlaminar fracture tests using guided waves

A delamination monitoring method was proposed to characterize Mode I and Mode II delamination onset in carbon fiber/epoxy (CF/EP) composite laminates through interrogation of guided waves activated and captured using piezoelectric actuators and sensors in a pitch–catch configuration. Mode I and Mode II interlaminar fracture tests were conducted using double cantilever beam (DCB) and end notch flexure (ENF) specimens to evaluate the proposed method. The changes in wave propagation velocity and wave magnitude (or attenuation), and the degree of waveform similarity between excitation and response signals, were calculated as delamination-sensitive wave parameters and plotted versus displacement recorded using a materials testing system. The kink points determined from wave parameter–displacement curves agreed well with the deviation from linearity (NL), visual observation (VIS) and maximum load (Max) points, which are often used in conventional methods for determining interlaminar fracture toughness. The propagation characteristics of the A₀ wave mode in a low frequency range were demonstrated to have high sensitivity to Mode I and in particular Mode II delamination onset in CF/EP composite laminates. It was concluded that the guided waves propagating in the DCB and ENF specimens were capable of determining Mode I and Mode II interlaminar fracture toughness, complementing current practices based on visual inspection or trivial interrogation using load–displacement curve alone.     

Torsion fatigue behavior of unidirectional carbon/epoxy and glass/epoxy composites

This paper presents results of the feasibility of carbon/epoxy composites (CFRP) as a future helicopter flexbeam material. Torsional behaviors of unidirectional CFRP and glass/epoxy composites (GFRP) with the same resin matrix were investigated. The initial torsional rigidity of CFRP was almost identical to that of GFRP. The torsional rigidities calculated using finite element analyses (FEA) agreed with the experimental results: the torsional rigidities are governed mainly by the material’s shear stiffness. Torsion fatigue tests were also conducted by controlling the angle of twist of the sinusoidal wave under a constant tensile axial load. No catastrophic failure occurred with either GFRP or CFRP, although decreased amplitudes of torque and torsional rigidities were observed according to the number of cycles. Results of X-ray CT inspections and numerical calculation by FEA revealed that degradation of a torsional rigidity is caused mainly by splitting crack propagation along the fiber direction. The torsion fatigue life of CFRP was superior to that of GFRP. Consequently, results confirmed that CFRP exhibits excellent properties as a torsional element of a helicopter flexbeam in terms of torsional rigidity and tension–torsion fatigue behaviors.     

碳纤维复合材料的微波反射特性研究

研究了各种铺层（０°、０°／９０°、±３０°、±４５°、±６０°）方式碳纤维复合材料（ＣＦＲＰ）的皮反射特性。结果表明,单向纤维铺层ＣＦＲＰ的反射率与纤维方向及层板厚度有关;交叉铺层ＣＦＲＰ的反射率很大,但比金属略小,喷涂了防雷击层的单向纤维铺层ＣＦＲＰ,电性能基本上各向员性;喷涂了防雷击层的０°、±４５°、０°／９０°ＣＦＲＰ的反射率比喷涂前有所降低。     

A unified fatigue life model based on energy method

A new unified fatigue life model based on the energy method is developed for unidirectional polymer composite laminates subjected to constant amplitude, tension–tension or compression–compression fatigue loading. This new fatigue model is based on static failure criterion presented by Sandhu and substantially is normalized to static strength in fiber, matrix and shear directions. The proposed model is capable of predicting fatigue life of unidirectional composite laminates over the range of positive stress ratios in various fiber orientation angles. By using this new model all data points obtained from various stress ratios and fiber orientation angles are collapsed into a single curve.

The new fatigue model is verified by applying it to different experimental data provided by other researchers. The obtained results by the new fatigue model are in good agreements with the experimental data of carbon/epoxy and E-glass/epoxy of unidirectional plies.     

不同孔隙率CFRP层合板静态力学性能研究

为了研究孔隙率对织物碳纤维/环氧树脂复合材料层合板静态力学性能的影响规律,分别测量了孔隙率为0.33%至1.50%的CFRP层合板的弯曲强度和层间剪切强度,并进行有限元模拟.在适用于复合材料单向板的改进Hashin失效准则基础上,建立了适用于织物纤维增强复合材料静态力学强度的失效准则.通过引入复合材料基本强度参数预测不同孔隙率CFRP层合板的力学性能,结合刚度突然退化模型,采用ABAQUS软件建立了有限元模型.试验结果表明,随着孔隙率的增加,复合材料层合板的弯曲强度和层间剪切强度均呈下降趋势.有限元模型较为准确地预测了不同孔隙率织物碳纤维/环氧树脂复合材料层合板的弯曲强度和层间剪切强度.     

基于纤维束/环氧树脂复合材料试验的单向层合板横向拉伸强度预测方法

实验研究表明,纤维束/环氧树脂复合材料试件的横向拉伸强度与工程上常用的单向层合板横向拉伸强度在趋势上具有很好的相关性,但是数值上存在一定差距。本文使用两种碳纤维和两种环氧树脂制备了三种纤维束/环氧树脂复合材料和单向层合板,并分别测量了纤维束/环氧树脂复合材料和单向层合板的横向拉伸强度,以及环氧基体的拉伸强度。在实验基础上,应用Griffith断裂强度理论建立了纤维束/环氧树脂复合材料和单向层合板的横向拉伸强度的关系模型,通过两种复合材料实验的结果拟合了该模型中的参数。利用第三种复合材料实验进行校验,发现该模型预测的单向层合板横向拉伸强度与实测强度之间达到很好的一致性,相对偏差为9%。采用本文提出的方法,可以用较为简单的纤维束/环氧树脂复合材料和环氧基体拉伸试验预测单向层合板的横向拉伸强度。     

Development of smart composite structures with small-diameter fiber Bragg grating sensors for damage detection: Quantitative evaluation of delamination length in CFRP laminates using Lamb wave sensing

The authors and Hitachi Cable, Ltd. have recently developed small-diameter optical fiber and its fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor for embedment inside a lamina of composite laminates without strength reduction. The outside diameters of the cladding and polyimide coating are 40 and 52 μm, respectively. First, a brief summary is presented for applications of small-diameter FBG sensors to damage monitoring in composite structures. Then, we propose a new damage detection system for quantitative evaluation of delamination length in CFRP laminates using Lamb wave sensing. In this system, a piezo-ceramic actuator generates Lamb waves in a CFRP laminate. After the waves propagate in the laminate, transmitted waves are received by an FBG sensor attached on or embedded in the laminate using a newly developed high-speed optical wavelength interrogation system. This system was applied to detect interlaminar delamination in CFRP cross-ply laminates. When the Lamb waves passed through the delamination, the amplitude decreased and a new wave mode appeared. These phenomena could be well simulated using a finite element analysis. From the changes in the amplitude ratio and the arrival time of the new mode depending on the delamination length, it was found that this system could evaluate the delamination length quantitatively. Furthermore, small-diameter FBG sensors were embedded in a double-lap type coupon specimen, and the debonding progress could be evaluated using the wavelet transform.     

CFRP复杂几何结构区相控阵超声检测建模与声传播规律

为厘清碳纤维增强树脂基复合材料(Carbon fiber reinforced plastics,CFRP)复杂几何构件相控阵超声检测中声传播规律,围绕CFRP材料R区开展了弹性特性表征、有限元建模、声场计算及实验验证工作。基于超声液浸背反射法和模拟退火算法求解了CFRP单向板刚度矩阵反问题,并借助Bond变换实现了R区弹性特性的定量描述。结合微观组织分析等获取材料、几何特征,建立了虑及曲面形状、叠层、弹性各向异性的R区相控阵超声检测有限元模型,计算了R区相控阵超声检测A、B扫描信号,发现存在结构噪声和缺陷伪像。在此基础上研究CFRP材料R区瞬态声场并与CFRP平板、弹性各向同性R区和0°单向板R区情况对比,阐明了结构噪声和缺陷伪像的形成机制:弹性各向异性叠层结构导致倾斜入射的超声波发生反射和折射,与沿肋板传播的快速波混叠在R区形成结构噪声,同时多向板R区两侧肋板反射导致缺陷伪像,即材料弹性各向异性与构件曲面叠层结构耦合共同影响缺陷的精准辨识。      

基于涡流成像的碳纤维增强树脂基复合材料细观结构可视化

对碳纤维增强树脂基复合材料（CFRP）的细观结构成像方法进行了研究,利用涡流成像技术实现了CFRP层合板中纤维方向及纤维缺失、褶皱和空隙过大等缺陷的可视化。首先通过有限元仿真和电路理论分析了CFRP板中涡流的生成机制和分布特性,阐述了基于涡流法的CFRP细观结构成像机制。然后介绍了用于扫描成像的高频涡流检测（HF-ECT）实验系统并确定了涡流探头的形式及其参数。最后利用涡流成像技术分别对单层板、正交层合板和四方向斜交层合板进行了检测,绘制了涡流检测（ECT）信号的三维伪彩图并得到了清晰的纤维纹路分布。通过引入滤波去噪技术和二维快速傅里叶变换（2D-FFT）对图像进行进一步处理,提高了图像分辨率并完成了不同方向上纤维纹路的分离,从而实现对层合板每单向层中缺陷的精确定位。     

Surface wave utility in composite material characterization

A surface wave velocity measurement technique is used to supply supporting measurements in the computation of elastic constants for practical nondestructive evaluation of composite materials. Theoretical modeling work is carried out to illustrate the surface wave velocity changes as a function of angle with respect to the axes along the fibers of a unidirectional graphite epoxy composite material for a variety of different problems, including porosity (PC) changes, fiber volume fraction (FF) changes, and delamination. Experiments are conducted on two unidirectional reinforced composites and a (0–90)_s cross ply graphite epoxy laminate to illustrate the surface wave velocity measurements and the inverse computation procedure for evaluation of the stiffness coefficients. Variations of the feature values in the stiffness matrix are also discussed for inhomogeneities, delaminations through cracking, and large defects.This paper was presented at the Symposium of Wave Propagation in Structural Composites at Berkeley, American Soceity of Mechanical Engineering AMD Volume 9D, June 20–22, 1988.     

Reinforcement effects of MWCNT and VGCF in bulk composites and interlayer of CFRP laminates

The reinforcement effects of two nanofillers, i.e., multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) and vapor grown carbon fiber (VGCF), which are used at the interface of conventional CFRP laminates, and in epoxy bulk composites, have been investigated. When using the two nanofillers at the interface between two conventional CFRP sublaminates, the Mode-I interlaminar tensile strength and fracture toughness of CFRP laminates are improved significantly. The performance of VGCF is better than that of MWCNT in this case. For epoxy bulk composites, the two nanofillers play a similar role of good reinforcement in Young’s modulus and tensile strength. However, the Mode-I fracture toughness of epoxy/MWCNT is much better than that of epoxy/VGCF.     

A complex approach to the development of the method and equipment for thermal nondestructive testing of CFRP cylindrical parts

Composite materials are being increasingly used in high-tech industries, such as aerospace, automotive manufacture and building inspection. Thermal nondestructive testing (TNDT) has become an accepted method for composite inspection. However, the majority of investigations have dealt with flat or slightly-curved composite components with a thickness of up to 5 mm. Particular studies have been devoted either to NDT modeling with an emphasis on some theoretical issues, or they have been based exclusively on experimental results. There has been some recent interest in the use of composite materials in the nuclear industry. Some critical parts, including centrifuge components, have been made of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites. The working conditions in a centrifuge include radioactivity and high rotational speed, and the composites used in centrifuges must have very uniform thermal properties and must be free of defects.This paper describes a complex approach to the TNDT of cylindrical parts made of CFRP by starting from thermal properties measurement, theoretical modeling and preliminary experiments, and finishing with the technical requirements for the development of practical equipment capable of operating in both laboratory and industrial conditions.The objects tested were CFRP cylinders with a diameter of 150 mm and a wall thickness of 4–6 mm, and they contained some artificial defects of varying size and depth. Both one- and two-sided test procedures have been analyzed for spot, line and uniform heating. Ultrasonic excitation has also been used as an alternative stimulation technique.In a one-sided test, the depth detection limit has been about 4 mm. Similar results have been observed in the case of ultrasonic stimulation, but the practical implementation of ultrasonic IR thermography to the inspection of cylindrical parts requires further exploration.In a two-sided test, even fairly mild heating resulted in the reliable detection of all defects independent of their size and depth.In all test cases, the highest signal-to-noise ratio occurred after applying the technique of principal component analysis.     

A comparative study of failure features in aerospace grade unidirectional and bidirectional woven CFRP composite laminates under four‐point bend fatigue loads

Damage mechanisms in unidirectional (UD) and bi‐directional (BD) woven carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates subjected to four point flexure, both in static and fatigue loadings, were studied. The damage progression in composites was monitored by observing the slopes of the load vs. deflection data that represent the stiffness of the given specimen geometry over a number of cycles. It was observed that the unidirectional composites exhibit gradual loss in stiffness whereas the bidirectional woven composites show a relatively quicker loss during stage II of fatigue damage progression. Both, the static and the fatigue failures in unidirectional carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites originates due to generation of cracks on compression face while in bidirectional woven composites the damage ensues from both the compression and the tensile faces. These observations are supported by a detailed fractographic analysis.     

Prediction of initiation of transverse cracks in cross-ply CFRP laminates under fatigue loading by fatigue properties of unidirectional CFRP in 90° direction

A fatigue life to the initiation of transverse cracks in cross-ply carbon fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) laminates has been predicted using properties of the fatigue strength of unidirectional CFRP in the 90° direction. In the experiments, unidirectional [90]₁₂ laminates were used to obtain a plot of maximum stress versus number of cycles to breaking, and two types of cross-ply laminates of [0/90₄]_S and [0/90₆]_S were used to evaluate the initiation and multiplication of transverse cracks under fatigue loading. Transverse cracks were studied by optical microscopy and soft X-ray photography. Analytical and experimental results showed good agreement, and the fatigue life for transverse crack initiation in cross-ply laminates was predicted successfully from the fatigue strength properties of the unidirectional CFRP in the 90° direction. The prediction results showed a conservative fatigue life than the experimental results.     

Al颗粒夹层CFRP复合材料力学及电磁屏蔽性能EI北大核心

CFRP复合材料具有优异的力学性能,在航空航天装备中有广泛应用,但是因其单层铺层内部的结构各向异性,单向纤维铺层对于垂直极化波的电磁屏蔽效能较弱。为应对日益复杂的电磁环境,保护电子元器件不受干扰,增强复合材料的电磁屏蔽效能显得尤为重要,本工作利用非连续Al颗粒在层间面内紧密排列,构建了一种层间面内含连续Al屏蔽层的CFRP复合材料,并研究了不同Al颗粒含量对复合材料电磁屏蔽效能和力学性能的影响规律。结果表明,随着Al颗粒含量的增加,CFRP复合材料的导电性和电磁屏蔽效能也随之增加,当聚合物中Al颗粒质量分数达到33.3%时,复合材料的面内电导率提高了3个数量级,在垂直于纤维方向上对频率为3~17 GHz的电磁波的电磁屏蔽效能提高了10 dB以上。随着Al颗粒含量的增加,复合材料层间剪切强度与弯曲强度出现先上升后下降的变化规律,当树脂中Al质量分数为33.3%时,复合材料的层间剪切性能提高了5.2%达到80.5 MPa,当树脂中Al质量分数为50%时,复合材料的弯曲强度提高了20%至1441.0 MPa,弯曲模量提高了10.2%达到101.83 GPa。由此可见,Al颗粒夹层CFRP复合材料可以实现力学性能和电磁屏蔽效能的同步提升,是一种具有广泛应用前景的结构-电磁屏蔽一体化复合材料。     

Evaluation of impact damage mechanism of multi-axial stitched CFRP laminate

This study focuses on multi-axial stitched fabric, which is a thick, high performance reinforcement for large-scale composite structures. The effects of impact damage on multi-axial stitched CFRP laminates molded by vacuum-assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM) method were evaluated. Impact damage within material was evaluated by ultrasonic scanning device and optical cross-sectional observations. Probed images obtained by both non-destructive and destructive methods were compared, and internal damage distributions of multi-axial stitched CFRP laminates were clarified. In addition, residual compressive strength and fatigue property of impact-damaged CFRP laminates were evaluated by in situ damage growth monitoring using the thermo-elastic stress analyzer (TESA). Three-dimensional damage distribution of impacted CFRP laminate was obtained from ultrasonic C-scan images and cross-sectional photographs. Damage progress behavior was observed on a destructive and non-destructive basis by post-impact fatigue (PIF) test.     

Investigation of laser pulse fatigue effect on unpainted and painted CFRP structures

Laser ultrasonic based nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques are being increasingly used in aerospace industries. Generally, the service lifetime for an aircraft could be more than 25 years. Thus, the composite structures of the aircraft could be susceptible to laser pulse fatigue damage caused by the laser pulse energy in the long-term repetitive maintenance inspection. In this paper, the effect of repeat laser pulse scanning on the mechanical characteristics of unpainted and painted CFRP specimens (USN175BX Carbon UD prepreg, Bisphenol A epoxy resin) is investigated to verify the reliability regarding the use of laser ultrasonic scanning based NDE techniques on the inspection of the CFRP structure. A high-speed laser ultrasonic scanning system is setup to perform repeat scanning of 1300 times on both CFRP specimens at the five laser pulse energy levels using the 532-nm and 1064-nm Q-switched continuous wave lasers. Elastic modulus assessment based on the ultrasonic Lamb wave pitch–catch method is used and the surface condition of the scanned area is investigated by a microscope. As a result, the laser pulse fluences that is shown in this paper are suitable for the long-term repetitive maintenance inspection in unpainted and painted CFRP structure even if it demonstrates an embrittlement phenomenon similar to the modulus measurement resolution in the unpainted CFRP specimen. In addition, the laser pulse fluence for maximum signal-to-noise ratio without any damage is investigated in both unpainted and painted CFRP specimens. As a result, both 102.45 mJ/cm² in unpainted CFRP specimen and 51 mJ/cm² in painted CFRP specimen can be the laser pulse energy for the maximum signal-to-noise ratio without any damage.     

Edge Delamination and Residual Properties of Drilled Carbon Fiber Composites with and without Short-Aramid-Fiber Interleaf

Edge delamination is frequently observed in carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) laminates after machining, due to the low fracture toughness of the resin interfaces between carbon fiber plies. In this study, the effects of incorporating tough aramid fibers into the brittle CFRP system are quantified by measuring the residual properties of bolted CFRP. By adding short-aramid-fiber interleaves in CFRP laminates, the residual tensile strength have been substantially increased by 14 % for twill-weave laminates and 45 % for unidirectional laminates respectively. Moreover, tensile failure was observed as the major mode of toughened laminates, in contrast to shear failure of plain laminates. The qualitative FEM results agreed well with the experimental results that edge delamination would cause relatively higher shear stress and therefore alter the failure mode from tensile failure to shear failure.     

Impact damage of carbon fiber polymer–matrix composites, studied by electrical resistance measurement

Drop impact damage of continuous carbon fiber epoxy–matrix composite laminates, was studied by electrical resistance measurement, which was shown to be more sensitive than the ultrasonic method. The oblique resistance at an angle between the longitudinal and through-thickness directions was more effective than the surface longitudinal resistance in indicating damage, particularly interior damage. The oblique resistance values from longitudinal segments of a specimen were not additive, but the surface resistance values were. In the case of a unidirectional composite, electrical contacts at 45° from the longitudinal direction in the plane of the laminate were more effective than those at 90°. Even minor damage associated with negligible indentation was sensed. The spatial distribution of damage was also studied.     

Characterization of Nonlinear Behavior in Woven Composite Laminates

Nonlinear stress–strain behavior in woven glass/epoxy laminates under off-axis tension has been investigated experimentally. The validity of an orthotropic plasticity model of such behavior, with three parameters, is discussed. The parameters have been determined from the experimental results. An attempt is also made to describe the nonlinear behavior of the woven composite as a cross-ply laminate using assumed unidirectional composite properties. The nonlinear behavior of the unidirectional laminate is assumed to be described by the one-parameter plasticity model. It is shown that there is a possibility that the one-parameter plasticity model can be used to predict the nonlinear behavior of woven composites.