Computer anxiety and attitudes among undergraduate students in Greece

This study attempts to give an insight to the computer anxiety levels and attitudes toward computers of the students of the Library and Information Systems (LIS) Department of Technological Educational Institute (TEI) of Thessaloniki using Computer Anxiety Rating Scale (CARS) and Computer Attitudes Scale (CAS). Both constructs were examined using explanatory factor analysis. Internal consistency of the factors of each construct was satisfactory. It was found that there was a strong negative relationship between the two concepts. Canonical correlation analysis demonstrated that anxiety explains more variance of the attitudes than vice versa. Another finding was that most of LIS students were not anxious toward computers and with positive attitudes. Factors correlated negatively with anxiety and positively with attitudes, were knowledge of English language, PC ownership, access of students to computers at younger ages, perceived advanced computer skills and computer experience as reflected by frequency of computer use.     

Assessing computer anxiety: Development and validation of the Computer Anxiety Rating Scale

Despite the growing role of computers in society, some individuals may actually avoid and resist learning about computers due to their anxiety. The present study was conducted in order to develop and validate the Computer Anxiety Rating Scale (CARS), by examining the behavioral, cognitive, and affective components of computer anxiety. The CARS was shown to be a reliable and valid measure. Higher levels of computer anxiety were related to greater math and test anxiety, and to less computer experience and mechanical interest. During an actual computer interaction, greater computer anxiety was associated with lower expectations and poorer task performance, as well as with greater state anxiety, reported physiological arousal, and debilitative thoughts. These results are consistent with a cognitive-attentional theory of computer anxiety and suggest directions for future research. Consistent differences between women and men on indices of computer anxiety were not found.     

Computer anxiety: A cross-cultural comparison of university students in ten countries

This study compared the construct of computer anxiety in university students across ten countries. A factor analysis of the Computer Anxiety Rating Scale (CARS) produced a three-factor model of computer anxiety (Interactive Computer Learning Anxiety, Consumer Technology Anxiety, and Observational Computer Learning Anxiety) for students in seven universities across the United States. The factor structures from students in nine countries (Australia, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Japan, Spain, and Yugoslavia) were examined using Confirmatory Factor Analytic procedures. Each country's factor structure was first compared to the United States three-factor model and then modified to provide the best possible three-factor model of computer anxiety for each country. Results indicated that each country possessed a unique culture-dependent model of computer anxiety. For two countries (United States and Australia), Interactive Computer Learning Anxiety included learning to operate a computer plus encountering computer problems. For the eight other countries, Interactive Computer Learning Anxiety captured only the aspect of learning to operate and program computers while a separate Computer Victimization factor dealt with anxiety surrounding computer problems. The Observational Computer Learning Anxiety and the Consumer Technology Anxiety factors also differed between countries. Similarities and differences in the factor structures are discussed in light of cultural characteristics, computer education, and computer software and hardware.     

The concept and correlates of computer anxiety

The introduction of computers into the lives and workplaces of many individuals represents a dramatic change. Zuboff has used the term 'computer-mediated' work to describe how the increasingly intellectual nature of work and the availability of computers is creating a revolution in the workplace. There is a real concern about how individuals react both cognitively and emotionally to the introduction of computer technology. The growth of the end-user computing phenomenon has made this concern more acute. Although many individuals have little difficulty using computers, there remains a far larger population of users who experience considerable difficulty learning how to use computer systems. Computer anxiety is a widely occurring phenomenon for this group of users, whose job performance and success may depend on their interaction with computers. Reviewing the literature, this paper describes the nature and correlates of computer anxiety and assesses training as a mechanism for reducing the impact of this anxiety. Limitations in current knowledge are noted and suggestions for further research are described.     

Computer anxiety in individuals with serious mental illness

This study was designed to compare computer anxiety in individuals with severe mental illness to a normative college sample and to examine whether computer training would be effective in reducing computer anxiety in individuals with severe mental illnesses. The Computer Anxiety Rating Scale (CARS) was used to assess the self-reported computer anxiety of 30 individuals with severe psychiatric disorders enrolled in computer training at a mental health facility's employment training center. The CARS was administered prior to training, after 1 month of training, and after 3 months. Anxiety levels before computer training began were compared to the computer anxiety levels of 35 community college students enrolled in a course providing similar computer training. The individuals with severe mental illness were found to have significantly higher initial computer anxiety scores than the comparison group. Computer anxiety was not significantly reduced by the computer training in either group.     

Occupational differences in computer-related anxiety: implications for the implementation of a computerized patient management information system

The present investigation was concerned with the implementation of an information system within a health care setting. A large number of staff required training on a new patient management information system (MIS). The aim of this study was to assess occupational differences on a number of psychological variables associated with MIS success. Computer anxiety was of primary concern due to its relationship to avoidance of computers. A total of 175 questionnaires were distributed, with 103 questionnaires being completed and returned for analysis (61.1%). It was found that clerical/administrative staff had significantly higher self-efficacy regarding computer use and more experience with computers. The nursing group experienced significantly more, computer anxiety, negative attitudes, and negative expectations than the clerical group. Self-efficacy was found to be the best predictor of computer related anxiety. The results have implications for MIS implementation strategies particularly in the areas of training and resource allocation.     

Mediating the impact of technology usage on perceived ease of use by anxiety

Computerphobic adults including first-year university students have been reported to range from 25% to 50%. Although self-reported computer anxiety has reduced in the past decade, it continues to be a significant issue for many. This is especially true for students of today where the stakes are high when using computers for their course work. Anxiety becomes even more critical when students are taking online courses. Past research has shown that computer experience is a strong predictor of whether or not a user will suffer anxiety symptoms while using a computer. Moreover, a substantial amount of work has been done to study the effect of previous computer experience on anxiety and on ease of use of information technologies using the technology acceptance model. However, few, if any, have investigated the role of anxiety in mediating technology usage experience on perceived ease of use. In this study, technology usage is viewed from two perspectives, the computer and the internet. We study the influence of anxiety in mediating the impact of computer and internet experiences on perceived ease of use. Questionnaire data from 114 university students were analyzed. The context was the use of a quiz tool to practice multiple choice questions. Contrary to most related studies, results indicated that anxiety has no mediating role on the impact of computer experience and perceived ease of use. However, anxiety was shown to present some moderating influence on perceived ease of use.     

Computer anxiety: A comparison of adolescents with and without a history of specific language impairment (SLI)

Individuals who are anxious about computers may be at a disadvantage in their learning. This investigation focused on the use of home computers for educational purposes. It compared computer anxiety in adolescents with and without a history of special needs related to language difficulties. Participants were 55 17-year-olds with specific language impairment (SLI) and 72 typically developing (TD) peers. Participants completed interviews regarding computer anxiety as well as computer importance and computer enjoyment. Measures of psycholinguistic skills, perceived ease of use and general anxiety were also obtained. Results showed that adolescents with SLI experience more computer anxiety than TD peers and that females are more anxious than males. Level of general anxiety, perceived ease of use and language ability had a direct association and were predictive of level of computer anxiety in adolescents with SLI. In contrast, only perceived ease of use was significantly predictive in TD adolescents. Gender was not a significant predictor in the context of other influential variables. The findings reveal a complex relationship between linguistic, attitudinal and emotional factors and computer anxiety. Adolescents with SLI who are at a greater risk may require multifaceted support for a number of influencing factors including general anxiety.     

Qualitative differences in computer experience,computer anxiety,and students' use of computers: A path model

Biographical information (age and gender) was obtained on 180 first year psychology students along with self-report measures relating to computer use. The measures were: age of initial introduction to computers; qualitative aspects of early computer experience (how relaxed and unpressured the experience was and the extent to which the individual had felt ‘in control’ and competent during the experience); level of computer anxiety; current and anticipated future frequency of use of computers. A path model linking the above variables was proposed and tested. Apart from gender, all of the predictor variables exerted direct and/or indirect influences on use made (and expected to be made) of computers. In particular, an early introduction to computers was generally associated with a more favourable quality of initial experience, leading to lower anxiety and greater readiness of students to use computers.     

Computer anxiety and attitudes towards microcomputer use

Survey data gathered from 187 participants were used to examine the relationship between demographic variables, computer training and experience, management support and system quality and computer anxiety, and attitudes toward microcomputers. Results of hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed that the quality of the computer-based information system which represents the interface and the interaction between the participants and the system has a strong positive effect on attitudes toward microcomputers, and a significant reduction on computer anxiety. Computer training contributes strongly to decrease in computer anxiety and has an indirect effect on attitudes toward microcomputers. However, computer experience and management support were found to affect the attitudes toward microcomputers directly. Among the demographic variables, gender was the only one which correlated highly with computer anxiety. Implications for the design of information and decision support systems and future research are discussed.     

Qualitative differences in computer experience, computer anxiety, and students' use of computers: A path model

Biographical information (age and gender) was obtained on 180 first year psychology students along with self-report measures relating to computer use. The measures were: age of initial introduction to computers; qualitative aspects of early computer experience (how relaxed and unpressured the experience was and the extent to which the individual had felt ‘in control’ and competent during the experience); level of computer anxiety; current and anticipated future frequency of use of computers. A path model linking the above variables was proposed and tested. Apart from gender, all of the predictor variables exerted direct and/or indirect influences on use made (and expected to be made) of computers. In particular, an early introduction to computers was generally associated with a more favourable quality of initial experience, leading to lower anxiety and greater readiness of students to use computers.     

The digital divide: the special case of gender

Abstract This paper examines the evidence for the digital divide based on gender. An overview of research published in the last 20 years draws to the conclusion that females are at a disadvantage relative to men when learning about computers or learning other material with the aid of computer-assisted software. The evidence shows that the digital divide affects people of all ages and across international boundaries. We suggest that the digital divide is fundamentally a problem of computer anxiety whose roots are deep in socialization patterns of boys and girls and that interact with the stereotype of computers as toys for boys. A model of the digital divide is presented that examines gender stereotypes, attribution patterns, and stereotype threat as antecedents of computer anxiety. Computer anxiety in turn leads to differences in computer attitudes and computer performance. A number of suggestions are offered to reduce the impact of the digital divide.     

The Greek computer attitudes scale: construction and assessment of psychometric properties

The purpose of this paper was to develop and test the psychometric properties of a computer attitudes scale for the Greek population. Through both adapting items from other scales and writing new items, this study developed a Greek Computer Attitudes Scale of 30 items, with three subscales: confidence, affection, and cognitive. This study also explored sex differences on the GCAS, and the relationship between age, computer experience, and confidence with computers and participants’ responses on the scale. Questionnaire data from four Greek samples, which included participants from the general population (185 and 354 individuals, respectively), 222 teachers and 99 undergraduate students, were analyzed. Results indicated that: (1) both the reliability (internal consistency and test–retest) and validity (concurrent) of the GCAS were adequate; (2) the relationship between age and GCAS was not significant, whereas sex did not have a significant effect on GCAS scores; and (3) perceived computer experience and confidence with computers were strongly related to favorable attitudes toward computers.     

The correlates of the digital divide and their impact on college student learning

By focusing on two dimensions of the digital divide—computer use and computer knowledge, this study explores four research questions: (1) What are the undergraduates doing with the computers they use at colleges? (2) How do undergraduates perform in regard to computer knowledge and skills? (3) With what is the digital divide among college students correlated? (4) What consequences does the digital divide have for student academic performance? In order to answer these research questions, a national survey was conducted. The survey investigated 3083 first-year college students of 12 4-year universities in Taiwan. A total of 2719 of them completed the questionnaires resulting in a response rate of 88.2%. In this study, the digital divide is measured in terms of computer use, which includes a variety of purposes for using computers and academic-related work as a proportion of total computer hours, and computer knowledge. Multiple regressions and a generalized ordered logit, i.e. a partial proportional odds model, are employed. The main findings include the following: (1) Undergraduates use computers not only for fulfilling their academic requirements and searching for information, but also for entertainment. On average, undergraduates spend about 19 h per week using computers, of which 5 h are academic-related. (2) Most undergraduates perform at the middle average level in terms of computer knowledge. (3) No significant differences among correlates in relating to demographic and socioeconomic family background were found in predicting the various purposes in using computers. (4) Students who are female, whose fathers and/or whose mothers are from minorities, whose fathers are blue-collar workers or unemployed, who study in the fields of the humanities and social sciences, and who enter private universities are at a disadvantage in terms of computer skills and knowledge. However, female students, students whose mothers were less educated and students who enroll in private universities are more focused computer users in terms of allocating time to academic-related work. (5) Computer knowledge and devotion to using computers for academic-related work have a moderate effect on college student learning, while the various other uses of computers do not. Of the different kinds of computer knowledge, it is the knowledge of software that helps students to learn the most.     

Computer aversion

“Computer phobia,” “computer anxiety” and “computer resistance” are among the labels employed in the popular and professional press to describe the psychological states of individuals who experience aversive reactions to computers. However, little research has been reported in the professional literature and theory-building generally advances no further than discussion of anecdotal reports. This paper reviews the literature on negative reactions to computers and presents a social learning model as a heuristic device to examine psychological aspects of computer aversion. Suggestions for future research and intervention are offered.     

Modeling technophobia: a case for word processing

After theory of reasoned action, Davis (1986Davis, 1993) and Davis, Bagozzi, and Warshaw (1989) proposed the Technology Acceptance Model to account for how perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, and attitudes predict behavioral intention to use computers. This study combined these factors with measures from Bandura's self efficacy theory (computer self efficacy and computer anxiety; Bandura, 1977, Bandura, 1986) in conjunction with assessments of current computer experience. A total of 147 undergraduates completed a series of questionnaires at the beginning and end of a 13-week semester. A multiple regression analysis revealed that self-reported word-processor usage over a 13-week period was predicted by levels of usage at the beginning of the semester, expected usage, and perceived usefulness. Initial levels of usage and perceived usefulness were both predicted by levels of computer anxiety. A combination of the variables formulated by the Technology Acceptance Model and self efficacy theory account for 45% of the variance in self-reported computing behavior over a 13-week period. The theoretical implications are discussed.     

A computer attitude scale for computer science freshmen and its educational implications

Abstract The successful integration of computers in educational environments depends, to a great extent, on students' attitudes towards them. Widely used computer attitude scales (CASs) focus on the beliefs of typical computer users and do not reveal the more refined attitudes of groups that use computers extensively and develop unique relations with them. This study presents the development and validation of a CAS especially designed for computer science freshmen (CASF). The scale consists of five factors, namely, self-confidence in previous knowledge, hardware usage anxiety, computer engagement, fears of long-lasting negative consequences of computer use and evaluation of positive consequences of computers in personal and social life. Using an analytic computer experience construct, the scale's components were related to multiple aspects of students' computer experience. CASF responses can inform a variety of instructional decisions and classroom management strategies for the first phase of the students' studies.     

Computer use in Korean schools: Instruction and administration

Computer use in education is now commonly practiced and becoming increasingly important in educational endeavors. The success of school computer education depends on how schools implement computers. However, little up-to-date information is available on the use of computers in Korean schools. The purpose of this research was to investigate the present status of computer use for instruction and administration in Korean schools. To serve this purpose, a survey was conducted in December 1994. Overall, Korean schools have a relatively large amount of hardware and software due to strong governmental support. However, while the quantity of hardware and software abounds, problems exist in hardware function, software distribution, teacher training, and school policy on computer education. Data collected in these initial stages of educational computer use in Korea will be useful to guide the Ministry of Education's policy towards computer education.     

The changing construct of computer anxiety for younger and older adults

A revalidation of a previously developed computer anxiety scale (Marcoulides, 1989) indicated changes in the factor structure for both younger and older adults. Two factors emerged — Direct and Indirect Involvement with computers — as compared with the previous two factors of General Computer Anxiety and Equipment Anxiety. This suggests that the construct of computer anxiety may have changed, perhaps because of the rapid changes in computers and the technological environment. Additional results showed that, while the factor structure was similar for younger and older adults, two items differentially loaded on the two factors. These results suggest the need for further examination of computer anxiety with older adults, with the possibility of developing computer anxiety scales specifically for older adults.     

Exploring the wiki user experience: The effects of training spaces on novice user usability and anxiety towards wiki editing

With the advent of Web 2.0, the number of IT systems used in university courses is growing. Yet research consistently shows that a significant proportion of students are anxious about computer use. The quality of first experience with computers has been consistently mentioned as a significant contributor to anxiety onset. However the effect of users’ first experience on system related anxiety has not to the authors’ knowledge been researched using controlled experiments. Indeed little experiment based research has been conducted on the wiki user experience, specifically users’ evaluations and emotional reactions towards editing. This research uses usability engineering principles to engineer four different wiki experiences for novice wiki users and measures the effect each has on usability, anxiety during editing and on anxiety about future wiki editing. Each experience varied in the type of training spaces available before completing six live wiki editing tasks. We found that anxiety experienced by users was not related to computer anxiety but was wiki specific. Users in the in-built tutorial conditions also rated the usability of the editing interface higher than users in the non-tutorial conditions. The tutorial conditions also led to a significant reduction in wiki anxiety during interaction but did not significantly affect future editing anxiety. The findings suggest that the use of an in-built tutorial reduces emotional and technological barriers to wiki editing and that controlled experiments can help in discovering how aspects of the system experience can be designed to affect usability and anxiety towards editing wikis.