Constraints and triggers: Situational mechanics of gender in negotiation.

The authors propose 2 categories of situational moderators of gender in negotiation: situational ambiguity and gender triggers. Reducing the degree of situational ambiguity constrains the influence of gender on negotiation. Gender triggers prompt divergent behavioral responses as a function of gender. Field and lab studies (1 and 2) demonstrated that decreased ambiguity in the economic structure of a negotiation (structural ambiguity) reduces gender effects on negotiation performance. Study 3 showed that representation role (negotiating for self or other) functions as a gender trigger by producing a greater effect on female than male negotiation performance. Study 4 showed that decreased structural ambiguity constrains gender effects of representation role, suggesting that situational ambiguity and gender triggers work in interaction to moderate gender effects on negotiation performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intentionally favored, unintentionally harmed? Impact of sex-based preferential selection on self-perceptions and self-evaluations.

In this laboratory study we compared the effect of sex-based preferential selection with that of merit-based selection on the reactions of 64 male and 76 female undergraduates serving as task leaders. Subjects succeeded or failed on the task while working with another individual (a confederate). As predicted, only women's self-perceptions and self-evaluations were negatively affected by the sex-based preferential selection method relative to the merit-based method. When selected on the basis of sex, women devalued their leadership performance, took less credit for successful outcomes, and reported less interest in persisting as leader; they also characterized themselves as more deficient in general leadership skills. These findings suggest that when individuals have doubts about their competence to perform a job effectively, nonwork-related preferential selection is likely to have adverse consequences on how they view themselves and their performance. Implications of the findings for the implementation of affirmative action programs are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Tolerance for ambiguity in female clients: A further test of the catharsis model for predicting early counseling dropout.

Expanded a catharsis model for predicting early counseling dropout in female clients by considering the relations between tolerance for ambiguity and indices of responsiveness to counseling. According to the model, females who leave insight-oriented counseling after experiencing cathartive relief from merely presenting their problems to a sympathetic counselor will be higher in ambiguity tolerance, since they are willing to leave counseling without resolving the uncertainties that accompany personal problems. Study 1, with 95 undergraduates who were administered the Adjective Check List, confirmed this prediction when female nonclient Ss showing high tolerance for ambiguity on a laboratory task were found to be lower on a validated scale of counseling readiness than low-tolerant females. This result was replicated in Study 2 on a sample of 228 actual female counseling clients. Higher tolerance for ambiguity in female clients was associated with earlier departure from counseling and with less improvement. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clinical supervision: An intensive case study.

Used a rigorous case study methodology to examine one supervisory dyad's work together during one semester. The supervisee was a 33-yr-old female doctoral student with about 7 yrs counseling experience; the supervisor was a 41-yr-old male counseling psychologist with 12 yrs supervision experience. The "best–worst" strategy of several recent researchers, multiple sources of qualitative and quantitative process data, and the perspectives both of the Ss and of observers were used. Findings provide hypotheses to guide future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

From heart attacks to melanoma: Do common sense models of somatization influence symptom interpretation for female victims?

Common sense models regarding gender and stress influenced how laypeople responded to information about symptoms in 3 experiments. In Study 1, medical intervention was perceived to be less important for female targets reporting chest pain and stressful events than for male targets experiencing identical symptoms and stressors. In addition, chest pain was less likely to be attributed to cardiac causes for female targets. This gender-based stress-discounting effect was replicated for symptoms of gallstones and melanoma in Study 2, where participants again were less likely to recommend medical care for female than for male targets. Recognition memory for information about a somatizing target was tested in Study 3; results suggested that laypeople hold stereotypes associating somatization with female gender. The authors' findings provide insight into the naive theories that shape symptom interpretation and self-referral behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Organizational citizenship behavior and performance evaluations: Exploring the impact of task interdependence.

The influence of task interdependence on the importance attributed to organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) in evaluations of employee performance was investigated in 3 studies. In Study 1,238 undergraduates were exposed to a task interdependence manipulation and a unit-level performance manipulation and provided citizenship ratings. In Study 2,148 master of business administration students were exposed to a task interdependence manipulation and then rated the importance of OCB in their evaluations of employee performance. In Study 3,130 managers rated the task interdependence in their unit of principal responsibility and the importance of OCB in their overall evaluations of employee performance. The results suggest task interdependence may affect the importance attributed to OCB by evaluators. Implications of these results are explored. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Further results on group manual dexterity in Men.

47 pairs of male college students were given six individual trials on the Purdue Pegboard, Assembly Task, and six trials in which both members of the pair worked together alternating in the assembly operation. On the basis of the last four trials, the members of each pair were divided into a 'high' and 'low' group. Means, variances, and intercorrelations for the 'high', 'low' and 'group' performance trials were computed. Even though in the replication the individual task was made to resemble more closely the group task, group performance could be predicted only imperfectly from individual performance (multiple R2=.48). The hypothesis that task comparability contributes to prediction of group performance from individual performance is rejected. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in self-assessed health: An information-processing investigation of health and illness cognition.

In 2 studies, the relation between measures of self-assessed health (SAH) and automatic processing of health-relevant information was investigated. In Study 1, 84 male and 86 female undergraduate students completed a modified Stroop task. Results indicated that participants with poorer SAH showed enhanced interference effects for illness versus non-illness words. In Study 2, 27 male and 30 female undergraduate students completed a self-referent encoding task. Results offered a conceptual replication and extension of Study 1 by confirming the specificity of the relation between SAH measures and automatic processing of health (vs negative or positive general trait) information. These studies provide evidence that individual differences in SAH are reflected in schematic processing of health-relevant information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex and ethnic differences in the use of power.

Hypothesized that women and Chicanos would make less internal and more external attributions for their own successful performance than would Anglo males. 40 Chicano male, 40 Chicano female, 40 Anglo male, and 40 Anglo female undergraduates participated as managers in an industrial simulation study. Ss were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 experimental conditions: designated powers vs unspecified powers, and supervision of male or female workers. Following the managerial task, Ss completed a questionnaire assessing their own performance and that of their workers. All Anglos devalued their workers as a function of controlling power and attributed workers' performance to external factors. All Ss tended to use their power to persuade workers. Males attempted to influence workers to a greater degree than did females. The predicted sex differences in terms of attribution were evident only among Anglos. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intolerance of ambiguity in preschool children: Psychometric considerations, behavioral manifestations, and parental correlates.

Conducted 3 experiments in a longitudinal study of ego development in which multiple measures were administered at 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 yrs of age and in which information about the parents and parent–child interactions was also obtained. 57 female and 63 male preschoolers were reliably evaluated with respect to intolerance of ambiguity at 3? and 4? yrs of age by independent sets of nursery school teachers. Ss relatively intolerant of ambiguity were comparatively hesitant to enter, narrow in deploying attention within, and premature in imposing structure upon 3 ambiguous experimental situations. Early intolerance of ambiguity in boys was significantly related to later intolerance of ambiguity, general anxiety, structure-seeking behaviors, and less effective cognitive functioning when the boys were age 7. Early intolerance of ambiguity in girls was related, when the girls were age 7, to a pattern of highly stable peer relationships in which the girls played nonassertive roles. Fathers of boys intolerant of ambiguity described themselves as relatively distant and authoritarian, and in a standardized teaching situation were impatient, critical, and less resourceful while interacting with their sons. Mothers of girls intolerant of ambiguity described themselves as nurturant, and in the teaching situation were emotionally supportive and task structuring with their daughters. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ability analysis of gender relevance and sex differences in cardiovascular response to behavioral challenge

Cardiovascular effects of gender-specific ability perceptions (ability perceptions linked to one's identity as being female or male) were examined under different task conditions. In Study I, participants were led to believe that either men (masculine task) or women (feminine task) tend to do well on a memory task and then were provided the chance to avoid noise by attaining a low or high performance standard. As expected, sex differences in systolic blood pressure response during performance depended not only on task type but also on the degree of challenge. In Study 2, high standard effects were strengthened and extended through the use of an appetitive procedure and the inclusion of conditions in which the performance standard was extreme. Findings are discussed in terms of an interactional analysis of ability percepts, task demand, and cardiovascular responsivity.     

Managing discrimination in selection: The influence of directives from an authority and social dominance orientation.

The authors examined one manner in which to decrease the negative impact of social dominance orientation (SDO), an individual difference variable that indicates support for the "domination of 'inferior' groups by 'superior' groups" (J. Sidanius & F. Pratto, 1999, p. 48), on the selection of candidates from low-status groups within society. Consistent with the tenets of social dominance theory, in 2 studies we found that those high in SDO reported that they were less likely to select a potential team member who is a member of a low-status group (i.e., a White female in Study 1 and a Black male in Study 2) than those low in SDO. However, explicit directives from an authority moderated this effect such that those high in SDO were more likely to select both candidates when authority figures clearly communicated that job performance indicators should be used when choosing team members. Thus, our studies suggest that the negative effects of SDO may be attenuated if those high in SDO are instructed by superiors to use legitimate performance criteria to evaluate job candidates. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Referencing and bias in social interaction.

Examined the consequences of schematic referencing for social behavior. In Exp I, 23 female and 21 male undergraduates worked in pairs on a word association task. In the self-referencing condition, Ss were told that their partner would judge their personality; in the other-referencing condition, Ss were asked to judge their partner's personality. Results show biased recall of Ss' own behavior over another person's behavior in a dyadic interaction. Exp II employed an alternative, more realistic manipulation of self-referencing using situational cues. 16 pairs of undergraduate Ss performed the same word association task either in front of judges or by themselves. The biased recall effect was replicated. Moreover, corresponding biases in Ss' attributions about the quality of their performance were found. Results confirm that self-referencing cues can cause the sort of egocentric reactions that have been observed in previous studies in which members of an interaction remember more of their own contributions and attribute more responsibility for joint tasks to themselves. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Task planning and energy expended: Exploration of how goals influence performance.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 72(3) of Journal of Applied Psychology (see record 2008-10684-001). Table 1 on page 109 appeared with reversed labels for the high and low conditions. The corrected Table 1 is provided in the erratum.] Although many studies demonstrate the effectiveness of goal setting in organizations, it is unclear how goals actually influence performance. The present studies examined the effect of assigned goals and task information on performance, energy expended, and task planning or organizing. In Study 1, a 2&×&2 (Information&×&Goal) design was used. Subjects were 72 undergraduates working on a business simulation. In Study 2, 129 male and female workers from a service organization and a moving company responded to a survey assessing an individual's goal setting, job training, energy expended during a typical task performance, and task planning undertaken prior to performance. The results of both studies demonstrated that goal setting and task training influenced the dependent variables. In addition to influencing an individual's energy expended (effort and persistence), a specific goal led an individual to plan and organize more than did an individual given a general goal (i.e., "do your best"). The results of both studies suggest that goal setting and task-relevant information influence performance, in part, through their influence on energy expended and planning. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Achieving fairness in the face of competing concerns: The different effects of individual and group characteristics.

Investigated preferences among allocation procedures available for use by those distributing rewards for individual performance in a group effort. It was hypothesized that allocators would try to balance the payoff distribution in response to all available information about the individual members. A target person's level of contribution to the group effort and level of financial need were manipulated in questionnaires distributed to 304 undergraduates. Results show a main effect for both individual characteristics but no interaction between them, thereby supporting the hypothesis of independent additive effects. Whether group characteristics would serve only to modify the effects of the individual characteristics, was tested by manipulating 2 group characteristics: morale and task outcome. As predicted, no main effects for either group level variable emerged. Further, the effect of contribution was greater under failure than success and under low than high morale. The effect of need was greater under low morale but only for female allocators. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's Reasoning About the Causal Significance of the Temporal Order of Events.

Four experiments examined children's ability to reason about the causal significance of the order in which 2 events occurred (the pressing of buttons on a mechanically operated box). In Study 1, 4-year-olds were unable to make the relevant inferences, whereas 5-year-olds were successful on one version of the task. In Study 2, 3-year-olds were successful on a simplified version of the task in which they were able to observe the events although not their consequences. Study 3 found that older children had difficulties with the original task even when provided with cues to attend to order information. However, 5-year-olds performed successfully in Study 4, in which the causally relevant event was made more salient. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Task planning and energy expended: Exploration of how goals influence performance": Correction to Earley et al.

Reports an error in "Task planning and energy expended: Exploration of how goals influence performance" by P. Christopher Earley, Pauline Wojnaroski and William Prest (Journal of Applied Psychology, 1987[Feb], Vol 72[1], 107-114). Table 1 on page 109 appeared with reversed labels for the high and low conditions. The corrected Table 1 is provided in the erratum. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1987-17299-001.) Although many studies demonstrate the effectiveness of goal setting in organizations, it is unclear how goals actually influence performance. The present studies examined the effect of assigned goals and task information on performance, energy expended, and task planning or organizing. In Study 1, a 2×2 (Information×Goal) design was used. Subjects were 72 undergraduates working on a business simulation. In Study 2, 129 male and female workers from a service organization and a moving company responded to a survey assessing an individual's goal setting, job training, energy expended during a typical task performance, and task planning undertaken prior to performance. The results of both studies demonstrated that goal setting and task training influenced the dependent variables. In addition to influencing an individual's energy expended (effort and persistence), a specific goal led an individual to plan and organize more than did an individual given a general goal (i.e., "do your best"). The results of both studies suggest that goal setting and task-relevant information influence performance, in part, through their influence on energy expended and planning. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)