Stopping power of Au for Cu ions with energies below Bragg’s peak

The stopping power of Au for Cu in the energy range 6 < E < 25 MeV was measured using a secondary beam of low velocity heavy ions produced by elastic scattering of an energetic primary beam (typically ²⁸Si or ¹⁶O) on a natural Cu target. The results were compared to predictions of the Lindhard, Scharf and Schiott (LSS) theory, the binary theory (BT), and the unitary convolution approximation (UCA) and also to semi-empirical predictions such as the Northcliffe and Schilling tables and the SRIM2003 computer program.     

New local model for electronic energy loss and its application to computer simulations of channeling

We used the average of the Thomas-Fermi (TF) electron distribution instead of that of Hartree-Fock (HF) electron distribution as the screening length of an isolated atom. Based on the Firsov theory, we proposed a new Firsov formula of the electronic energy loss which has a simple form ΔE_e(E, b) ∞ S_e(E) exp(γb)/(1 + βb)⁶, where S_e(E) is the electronic stopping cross section, b = p/a, p and a are the impact parameter and the screening length, respectively, and β and γ are the fitting parameters. Using the present screening lengths with the shell effect and the new Firsov formula, the depth distributions of channeling were simulated by the ACOCT code for 20 keV B⁺ ions impinging along the [1 1 0] channel direction of silicon (1 1 0) surface. The ACOCT depth profiles of channeling using the new Firsov (solid) local model for the AMLJ potential are in good agreement with the experimental ones.     

Stopping cross sections of He+ ions in bismuth

The stopping cross sections, ?(E), of He⁺ ions in bismuth have been measured by Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS) at incident energies ranging from E = 1.6–3.4 MeV. The energy loss of He⁺ ions and thicknesses of the bismuth films deposited on aluminium substrates were determined from the RBS spectra at each energy for scattering angles of 130° and 165°. The film thicknesses of some of the samples were also measured by weighing and the results compared with those from RBS. Parameters for energy dependence of stopping cross section in the Varelas-Biersack interpolation formula have been obtained for bismuth from a fit to all the available experimental data. Accuracy of our method based on RBS is demonstrated by measurements on copper, for which ?(E) is already well studied. It is also shown that reliable ?(E) values may be obtained even on samples with non-uniform film thickness.     

A Time of Flight-Energy spectrometer for stopping power measurements in Heavy Ion-ERD analysis at iThemba LABS

The quantitative analysis of thin layers using Heavy Ion-Elastic Recoil Detection (HI-ERD) can be reliably performed if the stopping powers of the probing ions and recoils in a given target matrix are known accurately. Unfortunately for many projectile/target combinations experimental data is limited and where available, deviations of up to 50% between experiment and theory have been reported. This presentation describes the assembly of a Time of Flight-Energy (ToF-E) detector system developed for HI-ERD analysis and adapted for stopping power measurements at iThemba LABS. First results from energy loss measurements of 0.1-0.5 MeV/nucleon ²⁸Si and ⁸⁴Kr ions in ZrO₂ are presented and compared with predictions of the widely used SRIM2003 (Stopping Range of Ions in Matter).     

The influence of the Coulomb explosion on the energy loss of and molecules channeling along the Si 1 0 0 direction

In this work we have measured the contribution of the Coulomb explosion to the electronic stopping power of molecular hydrogen ions and channeling along the Si 1 0 0 direction. We have used a SIMOX target, consisting of crystalline Si 1 0 0 with a buried layer of SiO₂. The measurements of the energy loss of H⁺, and have been carried out using the standard channeling Rutherford backscattering spectrometry. The energy loss has been measured around the Si 1 0 0 channel at a fixed energy per nucleon (150 keV/amu) as a function of the tilt and azimuthal angles. The present results show the effect of Coulomb explosion, which enlarges the protons traversal energy and consequently the channeling energy loss. This heating effect due to ions is about two times larger than molecules and amounts to about 5% of the total stopping power.     

Proton elastic scattering and proton induced γ-ray emission cross-sections on Na from 2 to 5 MeV

Differential cross-sections for proton elastic scattering on sodium and for γ-ray emission from the reactions ²³Na(p,p′γ)²³Na (E_γ = 440 keV and E_γ = 1636 keV) and ²³Na(p,α′γ)²⁰Ne (E_γ = 1634 keV) were measured for proton energies from 2.2 to 5.2 MeV using a 63 μg/cm² NaBr target evaporated on a self-supporting thin C film.The γ-rays were detected by a 38% relative efficiency Ge detector placed at an angle of 135° with respect to the beam direction, while the backscattered protons were collected by a Si surface barrier detector placed at a scattering angle of 150°. Absolute differential cross-sections were obtained with an overall uncertainty estimated to be better than ±6.0% for elastic scattering and ±12% for γ-ray emission, at all the beam energies.To provide a convincing test of the overall validity of the measured elastic scattering cross-section, thick target benchmark experiments at several proton energies are presented.     

Experimental stopping powers of Al,Mg, F and O ions in ZrO2 in the 0.1–0.6 MeV/u energy range

The study of the stopping and range of heavy ions (Z > 3) in matter isdsc cfddc of both fundamental and practical interest as heavy ions find increasing usage in a wide range of ion beam based techniques. While semi-empirical formulations like the widely used SRIM code can predict the stopping powers of hydrogen and helium in many elemental and compound targets over a wide range of energies quite well, their predictive accuracy for heavy ions is not as good. This is mainly due to the lack of heavy ion experimental stopping power data on which such codes are based. We present results of measurements performed using a Time of Flight–Energy spectrometer to determine the stopping powers of O, F, Mg and Al ions in the oxide ceramic ZrO₂ within the 0.1–0.6 MeV/u energy range. Possible SRIM correction (or correlation) factors for F, Mg and Al ions were extracted from quantitative comparisons of experimental and predicted stopping power values.     

Stopping cross sections of liquid water for MeV energy protons

Cross sections for the stopping of swift protons in liquid water have been measured for the first time by using a liquid water jet target of 50 μm in diameter. The energy loss spectra of incident 2.0 MeV protons were measured at scattering angles of 5.0-50 mrad. Experimental energy loss spectra have been successfully reproduced by Monte Carlo simulation calculations (GEANT4.9.1.p02 toolkit) by taking account of multiple scattering of projectile ions inside the liquid water target. The present stopping cross sections are found to be considerably smaller than other standard stopping power data, revealing e.g. about 11% deviation from those of SRIM2003.     

Stopping power measurements of heavy ions (3 ? Z1 ? 14) in Mylar foil by time-of-flight spectrometry

Heavy ions elastic recoil detection analysis coupled with time of flight spectrometer (HIERDA_ToF-E) have been used to measure energy loss of charged particles in thin absorber. The stopping power of heavy ions has been determined in Mylar for ²⁸Si, ²⁷Al, ²⁴Mg, ¹⁹F, ¹⁶O, ¹²C and ⁷Li ions over a continuous range of energies 0.14-0.80 MeV/nucleon. The ions were recoils from the bombardment of different samples (Si, MgO, Al₂O₃, LiF and C) with a 27.5 MeV Kr⁺ beam. The energy loss of the recoil atoms is measured with and without additional foils placed in front of a Surface Barrier Detector (SBD). The energy of individual ions is determined from its ToF data; the exit energy after the stopping foil is measured using the SBD detector. We have compared our stopping values to those predicted by SRIM-2008 computer code, ICRU-73 stopping data tables, MSTAR calculations and to the published data from literature. The results show good agreement with limited existing data but indicate a large deviation among the predicted theoretical values at the low energy side of the stopping maximum peak.     

Depth-profiling of implanted 28Si by (α,α) and (α,p0) reactions

Silicon nanocrystals enclosed in thin films (Si quantum dots or Si QDs) are regarded to be the cornerstone of future developments in new memory, photovoltaic and optoelectronic products. One way to synthesize these Si QDs is ion implantation in SiO₂ layers followed by thermal annealing post-treatment.Depth-profiling of these implanted Si ions can be performed by reactions induced by α-particles on ²⁸Si. Indeed, for high incident energy, nuclear levels of ³²S and ³¹P can be reached, and cross-sections for (α,α) and (α,p₀) reactions are more intense. This can help to increase the signal for surface silicon, and therefore make distinguishing more easy between implanted Si and Si coming from the SiO₂, even for low fluences.In this work, (α,α) and (α,p₀) reactions are applied to study depth distributions of 70 keV ²⁸Si⁺ ions implanted in 200 nm SiO₂ layers with fluences of 1 × 10¹⁷ and 2 × 10¹⁷ cm^?2. Analysis is performed above E_R = 3864 keV to take advantage of resonances in both (α,α) and (α,p₀) cross-sections. We show how (α,p₀) reactions can complement results provided by resonant backscattering measurements in this complex case.     

Energy loss of 4He ions in AI2O3 and SiO2

From the ⁴He energy loss measurements in Al, Al₂O₃, Si and SiO₂, we have extracted stopping cross sections for “solid” oxygen over the energy range 0.2 to 2 MeV and at 5.48 MeV. Assuming linear additivity of atomic stopping cross sections, values for oxygen are 5.3 to 15% higher in SiO₂ than in Al₂O₃, indicating that discrepancies in the Bragg rule for these oxides are clearly not due to phase effects but to chemical binding effects.     

Electronic stopping power of hydrogen in KCl at the stopping maximum and at very low energies

The electronic energy loss of hydrogen ions in KCl was investigated in a wide energy range. Thin films of KCl were evaporated on an Au/Si substrate. Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry (RBS) was performed with protons and deuterons at energies from 30 to 400 keV/nucleon. At lower energies experiments were performed by Time-Of-Flight Low energy ion scattering (TOF-LEIS) again with proton and deuteron projectiles. Experimental results are compared to calculated/tabulated values for the electronic energy loss. Whereas at energies beyond the stopping maximum very good agreement is found, at lower ion energies discrepancies between experiment and calculations increase. At very low ion velocities the extrapolated stopping cross section ε predicts vanishing electronic energy loss at energies below 100 eV/nucleon.     

Radiation damage in ZnO ion implanted at 15 K

Commercial O-face (0 0 0 1) ZnO single crystals were implanted with 200 keV Ar ions. The ion fluences applied cover a wide range from 5 × 10¹¹ to 7 × 10¹⁶ cm⁻². The implantation and the subsequent damage analysis by Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS) in channelling geometry were performed in a special target chamber at 15 K without changing the target temperature of the sample. To analyse the measured channelling spectra the computer code DICADA was used to calculate the relative concentration of displaced lattice atoms.Four stages of the damage evolution can be identified. At low ion fluences up to about 2 × 10¹³ cm⁻² the defect concentration increases nearly linearly with rising fluence (stage I). There are strong indications that only point defects are produced, the absolute concentration of which is reasonably given by SRIM calculations using displacement energies of E_d(Zn) = 65 eV and E_d(O) = 50 eV. In a second stage the defect concentration remains almost constant at a value of about 0.02, which can be interpreted by a balance between production and recombination of point defects. For ion fluences around 5 × 10¹⁵ cm⁻² a second significant increase of the defect concentration is observed (stage III). Within stage IV at fluences above 10¹⁶ cm⁻² the defect concentration tends again to saturate at a level of about 0.5 which is well below amorphisation. Within stages III and IV the damage formation is strongly governed by the implanted ions and it is appropriate to conclude that the damage consists of a mixture of point defects and dislocation loops.     

Tables of thermonuclear-reaction-rate data for neutron-induced reactions on heavy nuclei

The results of statistical model calculations of (n,γ), (n,p), and (n,α) cross sections and reaction-rate factors are presented in tabular form for over 500 target nuclei in the range 36 ≤ Z ≤ 83 (krypton to bismuth). Included in these tables is information on (i) the reaction cross section as a function of energy for the exoergic channel in the range 0.01 ≤ E(MeV) ≤ 3.0; (ii) the thermally averaged reaction-rate factor, N_A〈σv〉 and the nuclear partition function G(T) for temperatures in the range 10⁸ ≤ T(^oK) ≤ 3 × 10⁹; (iii) analytic fits to the reaction-rate factors and partition functions as functions of temperature; and (iv) nuclear level-density parameters and formulas for their extrapolation. Two types of reaction-rate factors have been computed. One, which may be called the “laboratory rate factor,” is based on the assumption that the target nuclei occupy only their ground states. The other, which shall be termed the “stellar rate factor,” is based on the more realistic assumption that the target nuclei occupy a thermal distribution of excited states at temperature T. A brief discussion of theory and instructions for usage of the tables are included. New fitting forms for statistical-model thermonuclear reaction rates are presented and justified.     

Measurement of the energy deposition profile for U ions with specific energy 500 and 950 MeV/u in stainless steel and copper targets

The paper presents the results of precision measurements of the total stopping range and energy deposition function of ²³⁸U ions with specific energies E = 500 and 950 MeV/u in stainless steel and copper targets. The experiment was performed at the SIS-18 facility (GSI Darmstadt) in the experimental area Cave A in September 2004-May 2005.The measured energy deposition profiles are compared with calculations using the codes ATIMA, PHITS, SHIELD and SRIM.     

Monte Carlo study of ion-induced backward and forward secondary electron emission from thin Al foil

A direct Monte Carlo program has been developed to calculate the backward (γ_b) and forward (γ_f) electron emission yields from 20 nm thick Al foil for impact of C⁺, Al⁺, Ar⁺, Cu⁺ and Kr⁺ ions having energies in the range of 0.1-10 keV/amu. The program incorporates the excitation of target electrons by projectile ions, recoiling target atoms and fast primary electrons. The program can be used to calculate the electron yields, distribution of electron excitation points in the target and other physical parameters of the emitted electrons. The calculated backward electron emission yield and the Meckbach factor R = γ_f/γ_b are compared with the available experimental data, and a good agreement is found. In addition, the effect of projectile energy and mass on the longitudinal and lateral distribution of the excitation points of the electrons emitted from front and back of Al target has been investigated.     

PIGE analysis of magnesium and beryllium

In this work, we present an alternative method for PIGE analysis of magnesium and beryllium in thick samples. This method is based on the ERYA – Emitted Radiation Yield Analysis – code, which integrates the nuclear reaction excitation function along the depth of the sample. For this purpose, the excitations functions of the ²⁵Mg(p,p′γ)²⁵Mg (E_γ = 585 keV) and ⁹Be(p,γ)¹⁰B (E_γ = 718 keV) reactions were employed. Calculated gamma-ray yields were compared, at several proton energy values, with experimental yields for thick samples made of inorganic compounds containing magnesium or beryllium. The agreement is better than 5%. Taking into consideration the experimental uncertainty of the measured yields and the errors related to the stopping power values, this agreement shows that effects as the beam energy straggling, ignored in the calculation, seem to play a minor role.     

Optical oscillator strengths, mean excitation energy, shell corrections and experimental values for stopping power

In a recent paper, Smith, Inokuti, Karstens and Shiles discussed optical oscillator strengths (OOS) of graphite, Al and Si and compared the mean excitation energy I obtained by integration to that from stopping power measurements. They found agreement for graphite and Al, but disagreement for Si. In this paper, we discuss the OOS of Al, Si, Cu and Au and compare the stopping powers calculated from these OOS (or from a single I-value), using program CasP40, directly to experimental stopping power values for protons between 10 and 80 MeV. We find that the choice of proper shell corrections is essential: since the shell correction built into CasP is too small, we take the correction for Al, Si and Cu from the BEST program of Berger and Bichsel. For Au, better results are obtained using Bonderup’s shell correction. With these choices, we find fair agreement between experimental and calculated stopping data, both with the I-values from ICRU Report 49 and with OOS. Even in the case of Si, the stopping curve based on OOS is not in conflict with experimental data. In all cases, the curves calculated using SRIM are in good agreement with the data.     

Nuclear Data Sheets for A = 168

Nuclear structure data pertaining to all nuclei with mass A=168 (Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt) have been evaluated and incorporated into the ENSDF data file. This evaluation supersedes the previous publication (V.S. Shirley, Nuclear Data Sheets 71, 261 (1994) (literature cutoff date July 1993)) and subsequent ENSDF file revisions for Tb and Dy (C. Baglin, literature cutoff date of 15 June 1999) and Hf (B. Singh, literature cutoff date of 30 April 2001), and includes literature available by 15 June 2010. Since the above evaluations, the first excited states in ¹⁶⁸Pt have been identified (1998Ki20, 2009Go16) and α decay from ¹⁷²Hg has been observed (2009Sa27, 2004Ke06, 1999Se14). New levels in ¹⁶⁸Dy have been excited using the ¹⁷⁰Er(⁸²Se,⁸⁴Krγ) reaction (2010So03). (HI,xnγ) studies have significantly expanded our knowledge of level structure in ¹⁶⁸Lu (1999Ka17, 2002Ha33), ¹⁶⁸Ta (2008QiZZ), ¹⁶⁸Yb (1995Fi01), ¹⁶⁸Tm (2007CaZW), ¹⁶⁸Hf (2009Ya21), ¹⁶⁸Os (2001Jo11, 2009Od02) and, for ¹⁶⁸Tm, important information has come also from (d,2nγ) and (α,nγ) reactions (1995Si20). Revised decay schemes are available following new studies of ¹⁶⁸Hf ε decay (6.7 min) (1997Ba26), ¹⁶⁸Lu ε decay (1999Ba65), ¹⁶⁸Ta ε decay (2007Mc08) and ¹⁷²Au α decay (2009Ha42). Significant new information for ¹⁶⁸Er is available from (p,t) (2006Bu09), (d,p) and (t,d) (1996Ma50), (γ,γ′) (1996Ma18), (136Xe, Xγ) (2010Dr02), (²³⁸U,²³⁸U^′γ) (2003Wu07) and (n,n^′γ) (1998Be20, 1998Be62) reactions, and the availability of γγ coin data (1994Ju02, 1996Gi09) for the (n,γ) E=thermal reaction has resulted in some significant level scheme revisions.