Study on ductile crack initiation limit from notch root of pipeline girth welded joints with strength mismatch

This study investigated ductile crack initiation limit of pipeline girth welded joints with different strength mismatches. The ductile crack initiation limit for the girth welded joints was evaluated by conducting three-point bending fracture toughness tests and wide plate tensile tests with a surface notch. In addition, effect of heat input on the ductile crack initiation limit of weld metal (WM) was evaluated on the assumption that a welding condition would be varied in the field in the actual pipeline construction. As the results, the equivalent plastic strain at the notch tip for the ductile crack initiation of the three-point bending tests was consistent with those of the wide plate tests, and the heat input hardly affected the ductile crack initiation limit within the range of this study. This meant that the ductile crack initiation limit of the pipeline girth welded joints with strength mis-match was able to be estimated using the equivalent plastic strain obtained from the three-point bending tests. Based on these results, we proposed a procedure to determine the rational fracture toughness requirements which took into account the difference in the plastic constraint between standard fracture toughness test and pipeline girth welded joints. This procedure was also possible to determine the required strength matching level for a strain-based design for girth welded joint containing surface notch in the centre of the WM in terms of preventing the ductile crack initiation.     

Fracture of ECAP-deformed iron and the role of extrinsic toughening mechanisms

The fracture behaviour of pure iron deformed by equal-channel angular pressing via route A was examined. The fracture toughness was determined for different specimen orientations and measured in terms of the critical plane strain fracture toughness, K_IC, the critical J integral, J_IC, and the crack opening displacement for crack initiation, COD_i. The results demonstrate that the crack plane orientation has a pronounced effect on the fracture toughness. Different crack plane orientations lead to either crack deflection or delamination, resulting in increased fracture resistance in comparison to one remarkably weak specimen orientation. The relation between the microstructure typical for the applied deformation route and the enormous differences in the fracture toughness depending on the crack plane orientation will be analyzed in this paper.     

P92钢高温断裂韧性的试验

文中以P92耐热钢为研究对象，研究了不同尺寸的开侧槽和不开侧槽的紧凑拉伸试样在630 °C下的断裂韧性，得到了相应的的阻力曲线及断裂韧度J_Q. P92钢在高温下为典型的韧性断裂机制. 基于三维有限元计算对侧槽的拘束效应进行表征，结果表明，侧槽可明显提高试样的拘束水平，试样尺寸越小，J阻力曲线差异越明显. 随载荷增大，非侧槽试样的拘束变化更明显，开侧槽将导致试样阻力曲线不同. 试样尺寸及结构的改变，对韧性材料的阻力曲线影响较大，而对断裂韧度值影响较小. 试样开侧槽之后裂纹扩展更平齐，可优化断裂韧性试验过程.     

Toughness of aluminium alloy foams

The fracture behaviour of closed cell aluminium-based foams (trade-name “Alulight”) is characterized for the compositions Al–Mg1–Si0.6 and Al–Mg1–Si10 (wt%), and for a relative density in the range 0.1–0.4. The toughness testing procedures are critically analysed, and the origins of the observed R-curve behaviour for metal foams are explored. A major contribution to the observed increasing crack growth resistance with crack advance is in the development of a crack bridging zone behind the crack tip. The crack bridging response is quantified in terms of a crack traction vs extra displacement curve by performing independent tests on deep notch specimens. The area under the bridging traction vs extra displacement curve from the deep notch tests is approximately equal to the measured initiation toughness J_IC, in support of the crack bridging concept. A line spring model is then used to interpret the fracture response. The effect of material composition and relative density upon the initiation toughness is measured, and the accuracy of an existing micromechanical model for the fracture toughness of a brittle foam is assessed. Finally, the reduction in tensile and compressive strengths due to the presence of an open hole is determined; it is found that the Alulight foams are notch-insensitive, with the net section strength equal to the unnotched strength.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">J</Emphasis>-<Emphasis Type="Italic">Q</Emphasis> Characterization of Constraint Effects of a Three-Dimensional Cracked Specimen

Failure assessment of the integrity of a ductile flawed structural component is done currently by a one-parameter fracture mechanics approach. The J-integral is the one-parameter used; it has proven to be useful in order to predict ductile crack initiation. However, when tension loading dominates and/or a fully plastic condition develops around the crack, the J-integral alone does not describe completely the crack-tip stress field and a second parameter is needed. In this work, an accurate modeling of the elastic-plastic stress field around a deep crack in a three-dimensional three-point bend specimen is carried out. Numerical results for the crack-tip stress field are used to evaluate a crack-tip constraint parameter Q, in terms of applied loading, from contained plasticity to large-scale yielding. The parameter Q, measures the degree of stress triaxiality and constraint around the crack-tip. In order to obtain the stresses in the near-crack-tip field with high accuracy, a detailed mesh with higher order three-dimensional finite elements is located around the crack front. The modeling of crack-tip blunting deformation is performed by using a small notch radius in the crack-tip. Large-strain and finite-rotation nonlinear behavior effects around the crack-tip are included. The material, an ASTM A 516 steel, is modeled with incremental theory of plasticity. Numerical results of the Q triaxiality parameter are presented for increasing level loads to obtain an extended yield condition. Additional results of J-integral parameter and crack-tip opening displacement, for different load ratios and for different position across the specimen thickness are shown.     

Out-of-Plane Constraint Effect on the Fracture Toughness of Single Edge Notch Tension SpecimensEI北大核心CSCD

The crack-tip stress and strain fields of single edge notch tension (SENT) specimen are similar to those of the full-scale pipe containing surface cracks under longitudinal tension and/or internal pressure. It is well known that material's fracture toughness is not constant, and the specimen size has a significant influence on fracture toughness. It is thus essential to consider the transferability from fracture specimens in laboratory testing to practical structures, i.e., size effects or constraint effects. However, the specimen dimensions for SENT specimens recommended by current design procedures have not validated the out-of-plane constraint effect on the fracture toughness. In this work, the effect of specimen thickness on the crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) of SENT specimen was investigated using an API X90 grade steel. Full-field deformation measurement by digital image correlation (DIC) technique and stretching zone width (SZW) examination were performed to analyze the size effects on fracture toughness. The results show that the critical crack initiation toughness is highly sensitive to specimen thickness, and decreases significantly as specimen thickness increases until the thickness-to-width ratio (B/W) equals to 4, beyond which the effect of specimen thickness becomes relatively weak. As the specimen thickness increases, the maximum longitudinal strain and stretching zone width decrease sharply, and the location of high-strain zones changes significantly; when B/W >= 3, strain is initiated from the area oppo-site the cracked side rather than from the crack tip, indicating a strong loss of plasticity for thicker specimens. A dimension size is recommended for the fracture toughness testing to take the out-of-plane constraint into account for SENT specimen.     

基于拘束的X80钢裂纹扩展阻力曲线构建

对于管道中的裂纹,由于其裂纹尖端拘束水平低,使用单边缺口弯曲试样、紧凑拉伸试样所测得的裂纹扩展阻力曲线对管道进行断裂评估,得到的结果趋于保守. 文中采用裂纹深度不同的单边缺口拉伸试样,探讨了裂纹深度对裂纹扩展阻力曲线的影响. 采用有限元分析,计算了裂纹深度不同的单边缺口试样的裂纹尖端拘束水平. 最后,基于裂纹尖端的拘束水平,所构建的裂纹扩展阻力曲线能更加准确地表征管道中裂纹的扩展阻力曲线.     

Deformation-induced defects controlling fracture toughness of steel revealed by tritium desorption behaviors

Defects induced by plastic deformation have been revealed by means of room temperature desorption and thermal desorption spectroscopy of tritium with regards to the ductile crack growth resistance and brittle fracture initiation in steels in the ductile-to-brittle transition region. Tritium, as a probe for detecting defects, was introduced into non-deformed or deformed samples. Three steels, the microstructures of which are characterized by the constraint factor for slip extension, were employed. The residual tritium in a specimen after three days at room temperature increased to the extent corresponding to the constraint factors when plastic deformation was applied. The thermally desorbed tritium, with a peak desorption rate around 150°C, also increased according to the constraint factors. Referring to the previous analysis of the R-curves, the constraint for the extension of slip across grain boundaries is shown to control both the ductile crack growth resistance and the brittle fracture initiation through the deformation microstructures that evolve vacancy clusters or microvoids.     

A Local Damage Approach to Predict Crack Initiation in Type AISI 316L(N) Stainless Steel

A local damage approach based on plastic strain equivalent to uniform strain and grain diameter of the material is proposed for prediction of crack initiation. Plane strain, plane stress, and 3D FEM simulations are carried out for compact tension (CT) geometry with blunt notch of different a/W ratios under mode-I loading. Elastic-plastic fracture parameters have been estimated based on certain assumptions on blunting at notch tip and micromechanisms of events leading to onset of crack. The various crack initiation parameters evaluated based on proposed local damage approach and initial assumptions have been verified by conducting experiments on CT specimens and subsequent scanning electron microscopy study on fracture surface. The laboratory scale experimental results of AISI 316L(N) stainless steel material are in good agreement with FEM-predicted fracture parameters for notch type of stress raisers. The local damage approach and FEM procedure established in the present study would be easily extendable to the analysis of stress raisers in components for the prediction of crack initiation under elastic-plastic condition.     

Fracture behaviour and numerical study of resistance spot welded joints in high-strength steel sheet

Cross tension tests of resistance spot welded joints with varying nugget diameter were carried out using 980 MPa high strength steel sheet of 1.6 mm thickness. In proportion, as nugget diameter increased from 3√t to 5√t (where t is thickness), cross tension strength (CTS) increased while fracture morphology simultaneously transferred from interface fracture to full plug fracture. In cases of interface fracture, circumferential crack initiation due to separation of the corona bond arose at an early stage of loading. The crack opening process without propagation was recognized until just before fracture and then the crack propagated to the nugget immediately in a brittle manner around CTS. In full plug fracture, main ductile crack initiation from the notch-like part at the end of sheet separation occurred with the sub-crack initiated at an early stage. The ductile crack propagated toward the HAZ and base material to form full plug fracture. The mode I stress intensity factor was considered as a suitable fracture parameter because the circumferential crack behaved pre-crack for brittle fracture in the nugget region at the final stage. Based on the FE analysis, the mode I stress intensity factor was calculated as 116 MPa √m at CTS as fracture toughness for the nugget. With respect to full plug fracture, ductile crack initiation behaviour from the notch-like part was expressed by concentration of equivalent plastic strain. On the assumption that the ductile crack arose in critical value of equivalent plastic strain, the value was calculated as 0.34 by FE analysis. Reasonable interpretation for interface fracture and full plug fracture in the resistance spot welded joint was proposed due to first crack initiation by stress concentration, brittle fracture by using mode I stress intensity factor, and ductile crack initiation by using equivalent plastic strain.     

Effect of Compressive Mode I on the Mixed Mode I/II Fatigue Crack Growth Rate of 42CrMo4

Subsurface cracks in mechanical contact loading components are subjected to mixed mode I/II, so it is necessary to evaluate the fatigue behavior of materials under mixed mode loading. For this purpose, fatigue crack propagation tests are performed with compact tension shear specimens for several stress intensity factor (SIF) ratios of mode I and mode II. The effect of compressive mode I loading on mixed mode I/II crack growth rate and fracture surface is investigated. Tests are carried out for the pure mode I, pure mode II, and two different mixed mode loading angles. On the basis of the experimental results, mixed mode crack growth rate parameters are proposed according to Tanaka and Richard with Paris’ law. Results show neither Richard’s nor Tanaka’s equivalent SIFs are very useful because these SIFs depend strongly on the loading angle, but Richard’s equivalent SIF formula is more suitable than Tanaka’s formula. The compressive mode I causes the crack closure, and the friction force between the crack surfaces resists against the crack growth. In compressive loading with 45° angle, da/dN increases as K _eq decreases.     

Three-term Asymptotic Stress Field Expansion for Analysis of Surface Cracked Elbows in Nuclear Pressure Vessels

Elbows with a shallow surface cracks in nuclear pressure pipes have been recognized as a major origin of potential catastrophic failures. Crack assessment is normally performed by using the J-integral approach. Although this one-parameter-based approach is useful to predict the ductile crack onset, it depends strongly on specimen geometry or constraint level. When a shallow crack exists (depth crack-to-thickness wall ratio less than 0.2) and/or a fully plastic condition develops around the crack, the J-integral alone does not describe completely the crack-tip stress field. In this paper, we report on the use of a three-term asymptotic expansion, referred to as the J–A ₂ methodology, for modeling the elastic-plastic stress field around a three-dimensional shallow surface crack in an elbow subjected to internal pressure and out-of-plane bending. The material, an A 516 Gr. 70 steel, used in the nuclear industry, was modeled with a Ramberg–Osgood power law and flow theory of plasticity. A finite deformation theory was included to account for the highly nonlinear behavior around the crack tip. Numerical finite element results were used to calculate a second fracture parameter A ₂ for the J–A ₂ methodology. We found that the used three-term asymptotic expansion accurately describes the stress field around the considered three-dimensional shallow surface crack.     

Transferability of critical condition for ductile cracking in bent small scale specimen to evaluation of critical internal pressure for ductile cracking in axially notched linepipe

Abstract

For two types of API 5L X65 linepipes, the critical conditions for ductile cracking of the linepipe steel and their applicability to the evaluation of the ductile cracking of an axially notched linepipe were investigated. Static three point bending tests and finite element (FE) analyses for a Charpy V notch specimen were conducted to evaluate the critical conditions for ductile cracking from the notch tip. At the position of ductile cracking for the Charpy specimen, the calculated stress triaxiality was almost constant for both linepipe steels; however, the equivalent plastic strain for each linepipe steel was different. Hydrostatic burst tests were then conducted for internally patched linepipes with an axial through wall notch. The results of FE analyses for the hydrostatic burst tests indicated that the maximum equivalent plastic strain value within the wall thickness was almost the same as that obtained from the three point bending test in the Charpy V notch specimen. It was therefore ascertained that the critical conditions for ductile cracking of linepipes with an actual notch can be predicted from the results of a small scale test and FE analysis, which are used to evaluate the relationship between the stress triaxiality and the equivalent plastic strain.     

On the Relationship Between J-Integral and Crack Tip Opening Displacement in Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics

The relationship between J-integral (J) and crack tip opening displacement (δ), considered fundamental for elastic-plastic fracture mechanics, can be established based on prior knowledge of the constraint factor m, which depends on the work hardening exponent and the material’s yield strain. Both J and δ were simultaneously determined at fracture initiation and at different points along the resistance curves for a number of structural steels. The corresponding m values were calculated and then compared with the predictions made by different models. The results indicate that the experimentally determined m values are in fair agreement with the predictions made by ASTM over the whole range of flow parameters considered in this study. The Hutchinson-Rice-Rosengren singularity-based predictions result in overestimating m for steels considered to be of low strength and high strain hardening exponent. Predictions made by other models are predominantly higher in comparison with their experimental counterparts.     

A model of heating a flux-cored wire in arc metallizing and analysis of the structure of the coating

Summary

This paper describes HAZ‐notched CTOD tests of multipass welds in SMYS = 420–460 MPa class high‐strength steels for offshore structural applications. The weld metal strength overmatch causes different fracture behaviour depending on the actual CGHAZ toughness. When the CGHAZ is completely embrittled, the weld metal strength overmatch leads to the lower bound critical CTOD value. This is due to elevation of the local stress in the CGHAZ caused by the restraint effect of the overmatched weld metal. The fracture surface is generally flat, and brittle fracture originates from the CGHAZ sampled by the fatigue crack front. A larger fraction of the CGHAZ along the crack front gives a smaller critical CTOD value. When the CGHAZ has moderate toughness, however, the weld metal strength overmatch may produce a higher critical CTOD value at brittle fracture initiation. This is due to crack growth path deviation towards the base metal. Plastic deformation preferentially accumulates to a greater extent on the softer base metal side before the critical stress conditions for brittle fracture initiation occur in the CGHAZ. This asymmetrical plastic deformation promotes deviation of ductile crack growth from the crack tip CGHAZ. In this case, the critical CTOD value does not always reflect the CGHAZ toughness itself.

A notch location nearer the weld metal sometimes causes fracture initiation in the weld metal if the fatigue crack tip samples the CGHAZ. Such experimental data do not reflect the real CGHAZ toughness.

The significance of the critical CTOD value obtained in the tests must be determined in the fracture toughness evaluation of the weld CGHAZ. This paper presents a procedure for evaluation of CTOD test results obtained for HAZ‐notched welds that considers the strength mismatch effect.     

氢致延迟裂缝的启裂及扩展过程的研究

通过声发声法及插销试验对高强钢的氢致裂缝的启裂、扩展以及断裂过程进行了试验研究,凭借第一个(或连续数个)A、E 信号成功地捕获了启裂点。实验结果表明:环形缺口插销试件中延迟裂缝的启裂位置是有规律的,常位于熔合线与缺口相交处附近.根据A.E 波形可将整个过程划分为启裂、延迟扩展、快速扩展、瞬时断裂四个时期,在断口上也可看到相应的分区,利用扫描电镜研究了各区的微观形貌。随着裂缝从延迟区→快速区→终断区扩展,裂缝前端的断裂强度因子K 逐渐加大,H_D 逐渐减少,断口形貌也有IG+QC_(HE)→QC+DR→DR 的变化。作者认为,延迟扩展期体现氢致延迟裂缝的本质。因此.启裂及延迟扩展区的断口是最有代表性的。此外,利用多试样法探讨了插销试件上裂缝的扩展途径。本文还讨论了,氢含量对延迟裂缝扩展区的断口微观形貌的影响,除氢处理后的试件中无IG(或很少),低氢时有较多的(IG)_(DR),高氢下则冰糖状IG 形貌增多,证实了氢对原奥氏体晶界有明显的脆化作用。     

X70管线钢不同温度下断裂韧性实验研究

以三维弹塑性断裂理论为基础，对有限厚度板裂纹端部应力场、三维应力约束进行了分析，通过对不同厚度、不同初始裂纹长度在不同温度下三点弯曲试件的断裂韧性测试断口观测和理论分析获得如下结果：离面约束对裂尖应力场及断裂韧性有强烈的影响；断口均产生分层裂纹，其位置、大小和数量与试样厚度、温度和裂纹初始长度有关；温度较低时，分层裂纹距主裂纹根部一定距离，分层裂纹宽度较小，对厚度效应影响较小；温度较高时，分层裂纹首先出现在主裂纹根部，分层裂纹宽度较大且充分张开，降低了试样的有效厚度，对X70管线钢进行性能评价时必须考虑管道壁厚、层裂和环境温度的耦合作用。     

On the role of martensitic transformation on damage and cracking resistance in TRIP-assisted multiphase steels

The damage resistance, fracture toughness and austenite transformation rate in transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP)-assisted multiphase steel sheets were comparatively characterised on two steel grades differing by the volume fractions of the phases (i.e. ferrite, bainite, retained austenite) and by the mechanical stability of retained austenite. The influence of stress triaxiality on austenite transformation kinetics and the coupling between martensitic transformation and damage were investigated using double edge notched (or cracked) plate specimens tested in tension. The map of the distribution of transformation rates measured locally around the notch (or the crack) was compared with the map of the effective plastic strains and stress triaxialities computed by finite element simulations of the tests. The mechanically-activated martensitic transformation was found to progress continuously with plastic straining and to be strongly influenced by stress triaxiality. Fracture resistance was characterised by means of J_R curves and CTOD measurements using DENT specimens. The fracture toughness at cracking initiation was found to be lower for the steel with higher tensile strength and ductility. The contrasted influence of the TRIP effect, which improves formability by delaying plastic localisation but reduces fracture toughness at cracking initiation, is shown to result from parameters such as the volume fraction of non-intercritical ferrite phases or the mechanical properties of martensite.     

In situ observations on effects of hydrogen on deformation and fracture of A533B pressure vessel steel

External hydrogen gas atmospheres enhanced dislocation motion, multiplication of dislocations, and dis-location source activation under applied loading during in situ high-voltage electron microscopy (HVEM) observations of A533B pressure vessel steel. However, in both vacuum and hydrogen atmos-pheres, fracture occurred in a ductile manner in specimen areas transparent in the 1000-keV HVEM. The principal effect of the hydrogen atmosphere was to decrease the stress required for deformation near the crack tip and for crack propagation. Deformation at the crack tip was highly localized in both atmos-pheres, and a yielding strip plastic zone, analogous to the Dugdale-Barenblatt model for crack growth, formed ahead of the crack tip. The crack tip plasticity was confined to this strip. Inside the yielding strip, final cracking occurred through a sliding-off mechanism in the thin areas of the HVEM specimen. In the thicker areas of the specimen, where the yielding strip ahead of the crack was no longer transparent, crack tip blunting and void/microcrack formation ahead of the main crack tip could be observed directly. Crack tip blunting occurred by a two-corner mechanism, and further crack growth initiated by strain lo-calization at one of the crack tip vertices. Also void/microcrack formation ahead of the main crack tip was operative and resulted in coalescence into the main crack tip along the anticipated shear bands. Frac-tography of the thicker areas showed a ductile, dimpled fracture mechanism both in vacuum and hydro-gen atmospheres. Technical Research Centre of Finland, Metals Labo-ratory, SF-02150 Espoo, Finland     

Deformation behaviour of closed-cell aluminium foams in tension

The mechanical behaviour of commercially available ALPORAS aluminium foam with two different densities was studied under tension loading. In addition to the common stress–strain measurements, local deformation, notch-opening displacement and damage evolution were determined. The deformation characteristics deviated from those observed in aluminium foams under compression. No deformation bands or plastic instabilities could be observed in tension, which are very frequent in compression of metallic foams. Four regimes were evident in the stress–strain curves and deformation maps: the linear elastic regime, the plastic regime with no significant crack initiation and propagation, the regime of formation of a fracture process zone and, finally, the regime of fracture, where a main crack propagates through the specimen and leads to failure. The fracture strain was only a few per cent, with the higher-density foam showing a larger fracture strain, and the plastic Poisson's ratio was about 0.35. The notched specimens showed increasing fracture strengths in terms of the net section stress with increasing notch depth. It is suggested that a change in stress state, caused by a non-vanishing Poisson's ratio, in front of the notch tip creates an increase of the fracture strength similar to the behaviour in ductile bulk metals.