Nanoscale potential measurements in liquid by frequency modulation atomic force microscopy

We have developed a method for local potential measurements in liquid using frequency modulation atomic force microscopy. In this method, local potential is calculated from the first and second harmonic vibrations of a cantilever induced by applying an ac bias voltage between a tip and a sample. The use of an ac bias voltage with a relatively high frequency prevents uncontrolled electrochemical reactions and redistribution of ions and water. The nanoscale resolution of the method is demonstrated by imaging potential distribution of a dodecylamine thin film deposited on a graphite surface in 1 mM NaCl solution.     

高频调制矢量原子磁力仪综述

通过施加调制磁场降低测量1/f噪声、实现矢量化测量,是原子磁力仪中常用的方法。根据调制磁场频率与弛豫率的相对大小,可以分为低频调制和高频调制两大类。本文对高频调制原子磁力仪进行了总结和分类,按照调制磁场方向与抽运光方向的相对位置分为平行调制与垂直调制两大类,之后再按照主磁场方向细分为七类不同的配置。详细分析了其中四类较为常见的配置,分别是垂直调制X型、垂直调制零场型、平行调制Z型和平行调制零场型。从Bloch方程出发,推导了这4类配置的测量解析模型,除了梳理和验证现有文献的理论分析之外,也得到一些现有文献没有提及的测量模型。采用MATLAB Simulink模块进行了数值仿真,验证了解析模型推导过程一些简化处理的合理性。给出了Bloch方程的通用Simulink模型,可用于任意配置原子磁力仪的数值仿真。     

Multipixel system for gigahertz frequency-domain optical imaging of finger joints

Frequency-domain optical imaging systems have shown great promise for characterizing blood oxygenation, hemodynamics, and other physiological parameters in human and animal tissues. However, most of the frequency domain systems presented so far operate with source modulation frequencies below 150 MHz. At these low frequencies, their ability to provide accurate data for small tissue geometries such as encountered in imaging of finger joints or rodents is limited. Here, we present a new system that can provide data up to 1 GHz using an intensity modulated charged coupled device camera. After data processing, the images show the two-dimensional distribution of amplitude and phase of the light modulation on the finger surface. The system performance was investigated and test measurements on optical tissue phantoms were taken to investigate whether higher frequencies yield better signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs). It could be shown that local changes in optical tissue properties, as they appear in the initial stages of rheumatoid arthritis in a finger joint, are detectable by simple image evaluation, with the range of modulation frequency around 500 MHz proving to yield the highest SNR.     

Design of a compact cw chemical HF/DF laser using a microwave discharge

A compact cw chemical HF/DF laser is described. The laser system consists of a microwave discharge using a surfatron to dissociate SF6 molecules mixed with He, a reaction chamber engineered to provide a fast mixing of reacting atoms and molecules, and an optical resonator which includes a concave mirror and a blazed grating for line selection, both mounted on a rigid Invar frame. The laser oscillates on a single line single TEM00 mode over many P transitions of HF and DF with a typical intensity fluctuation of 5% and a frequency jitter of about 30 MHz.     

Phase detection of electrostatic force by AFM with a conductive tip

Electrostatic force measurements were performed by the Kelvin probe force microscopy, which consists of the atomic force microscopy and a conductive tip. Sample surface potential was evaluated through the electrostatic force, which works between the sample and the tip when we apply an AC bias at a frequency f(s) with a DC offset. If the DC offset voltage is equal to the surface potential difference between the sample and the tip, the amplitude of the f(s) component in the electrostatic force becomes zero, and the phase of the f(s) component jumps 180 degrees there. We found that the complementary use of the amplitude and phase signals improved the accuracy of the determination of the surface potential. We measured both the work functions of some metals and the surface Fermi levels of an InAs layers on (1 0 0) and (1 1 0) GaAs substrates based on the phase detection method of the electrostatic force.     

Feed-forward compensation of surface potential in atomic force microscopy

We introduce a feed-forward technique for lift-mode Kelvin probe force microscopy to minimize electrostatically induced errors in topography scans. Such errors typically occur when a grounded tip is scanned over a heterogeneous sample with differences in local work function or areas of local surface charging. To minimize electrostatic forces during the topography scan we bias the tip with the surface potential recorded in the previous Kelvin probe scan line. With this method we achieve an error free topography on samples with large variations in local surface potential. Compared to conventional tapping mode, we further observe a significant reduction of tip-induced surface charge modifications on charge patterns written in electret films.     

Multipurpose EPR loop-gap resonator and cylindrical TE011 cavity for aqueous samples at 94 GHz

A loop-gap resonator (LGR) and a cylindrical TE(011) cavity resonator for use at W band, 94 GHz, have been designed and characterized using the Ansoft (Pittsburgh, PA) high frequency structure simulator (HFSS; Version 10.0). Field modulation penetration was analyzed using Ansoft MAXWELL 3D (Version 11.0). Optimizing both resonators to the same sample sizes shows that EPR signal intensities of the LGR and TE(011) are similar. The 3 dB bandwidth of the LGR, on the order of 1 GHz, is a new advantage for high frequency experiments. Ultraprecision electric discharge machining (EDM) was used to fabricate the resonators from silver. The TE(011) cavity has slots that are cut into the body to allow penetration of 100 kHz field modulation. The resonator body is embedded in graphite, also cut by EDM techniques, for a combination of reasons that include (i) reduced microwave leakage and improved TE(011) mode purity, (ii) field modulation penetration, (iii) structural support for the cavity body, and (iv) machinability by EDM. Both resonators use a slotted iris. Variable coupling is provided by a three-stub tuning element. A collet system designed to hold sample tubes has been implemented, increasing repeatability of sample placement and reducing sample vibration noise. Initial results include multiquantum experiments up to 9Q using the LGR to examine 1 mM 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO) in aqueous solution at room temperature and field modulation experiments using the TE(011) cavity to obtain an EPR spectrum of 1 microM TEMPO.     

Study on the effect of measuring methods on incident photon-to-electron conversion efficiency of dye-sensitized solar cells by home-made setup

An experimental setup is built for the measurement of monochromatic incident photon-to-electron conversion efficiency (IPCE) of solar cells. With this setup, three kinds of IPCE measuring methods as well as the convenient switching between them are achieved. The setup can also measure the response time and waveform of the short-circuit current of solar cell. Using this setup, IPCE results of dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) are determined and compared under different illumination conditions with each method. It is found that the IPCE values measured by AC method involving the lock-in technique are sincerely influenced by modulation frequency and bias illumination. Measurements of the response time and waveform of short-circuit current have revealed that this effect can be explained by the slow response of DSCs. To get accurate IPCE values by this method, the measurement should be carried out with a low modulation frequency and under bias illumination. The IPCE values measured by DC method under the bias light illumination will be disturbed since the short-circuit current increased with time continuously due to the temperature rise of DSC. Therefore, temperature control of DSC is considered necessary for IPCE measurement especially in DC method with bias light illumination. Additionally, high bias light intensity (>2?sun) is found to decrease the IPCE values due to the ion transport limitation of the electrolyte.     

Note: Quantitative (artifact-free) surface potential measurements using Kelvin force microscopy

The measurement of local surface potentials by Kelvin force microscopy (KFM) can be sensitive to external perturbations which lead to artifacts such as strong dependences of experimental results (typically in a ～1 V range) with KFM internal parameters (cantilever excitation frequency and/or the projection phase of the KFM feedback-loop). We analyze and demonstrate a correction of such effects on a KFM implementation in ambient air. Artifact-free KFM measurements, i.e., truly quantitative surface potential measurements, are obtained with a ～30 mV accuracy.     

Kelvin probe force microscopy in application to biomolecular films: Frequency modulation,amplitude modulation,and lift mode

Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) is a powerful technique to visualize the differences of work function in metals and lateral surface potential distribution in thin organic films. Earlier we have shown that frequency modulated-Kelvin probe force microscopy has significant advantages in both sensitivity and resolution when applied to metal and inorganic interfaces in vacuum. High resolution, high sensitivity, and performance in ambient conditions are required in order to study biologically relevant samples. In this work we compared the resolution of frequency modulation (FM-KPFM), amplitude modulation (AM-KPFM), and lift modes KPFM for imaging the local electrical surface potential of complex biomolecular films and demonstrated that FM-KPFM mode has superior resolution for biological applications. The power of the method was illustrated on pulmonary surfactant films, revealing nm spatial resolution and mV potential sensitivity in ambient air. At this level of resolution this method can provide critical insight into the molecular arrangement and function of complex biosystems in a way that other KPFM modes cannot do. Based on the observed changes in the local surface potential we discovered that excess cholesterol produces nm size electrostatic domains and change the electric fields.     

变分非线性单分量 Chirp 模态提取及其在电机轴承诊断中的应用

变频驱动下旋转机械设备的振动信号具有调制成分复杂、涉及频带较宽和噪声干扰严重等问题,造成与故障相关的单分量调制成分提取困难。为此,提出了一种新的变分非线性单分量chirp模态提取(VNSCME)方法,建立单个目标模态解调频带最窄与残余分量能量最小组合约束的变分优化模型,迭代提取特定的单分量非线性调制成分。预设一个有关目标模态瞬时频率的先验知识,VNSCME能够独立地提取出特定的单分量调制成分并准确估计其瞬时频率。与现有研究相比,VNSCME具有不受时频分布分辨率限制、初始化简单和计算效率高的特点。将VNSCME与阶次跟踪技术相结合,应用于变频驱动电机轴承故障诊断。分别对仿真和实测的故障振动信号进行处理,结果显示瞬时转频估计的相对误差低于0.76%,提取单个目标模态的计算时间低于11.9 s,验证了所提方法的有效性。     

基于改进全息希尔伯特谱分析的旋转机械故障诊断方法

时频分析方法能够有效同时提取故障设备振动信号的时间和频率信息,但在全面反映非线性振动信号幅值调制与频率调制特征之间的跨尺度耦合关系方面仍存在局限,且容易受到噪声干扰。对此,创新性地将全息希尔伯特谱分析(Holo-Hilbert spectral analysis,HHSA)方法引入到机械故障诊断中。HHSA通过双层经验模态分解(EMD)结构可完整地描述振动信号的内部调制特性,非常适合机械局部故障的检测。同时,为了进一步提升HHSA的诊断精度、抑制EMD模态混叠和噪声干扰,提出一种基于改进再生相移正弦辅助经验模式分解(Improved regenerated phase-shifted sinusoid-assisted EMD,IRPSEMD)的改进HHSA方法(IHHSA)。通过仿真信号验证IHHSA方法用于局部故障检测和诊断的有效性。最后,将IHHSA应用于齿轮裂纹故障和滚动轴承局部故障诊断中,结果表明,提出的IHHSA方法能够更全面地反映和呈现非线性故障振动信号的内部调制关系,且具有更好的故障识别能力。     

An accurate new method to measure the dimensionless figure of merit of thermoelectric devices based on the complex impedance porcupine diagram

The heat diffusion related f(-1/2) slow decay in the frequency domain transfer function of thermoelectric devices introduces a bias in figure of merit measurement methods that do not take it into account. The bias can range from less than 1% to more than 20% depending on the device. Harman type methods are not immune. Neither is the simple single measurement procedure proposed here on the basis of a complex thermal impedance analysis of the device, but in this case the supporting theory allows evaluating and correcting for the bias with documented accuracy. To this aim, both a theoretical approach based on a priori knowledge of the device and an experimental one based on theory guided measurements are possible and are described in the paper. Typical residual Type B uncertainties after correction can be below 10% of the bias.     

基于强度-相位级联调制的微波光子下变频法

为了优化微波光子下变频的无杂散动态范围,结合带反馈控制的强度调制器和相位调制器,提出并验证了基于强度和相位级联调制的微波光子下变频方法。通过理论推导和仿真分析了下变频原理以及本振功率对系统性能的影响,搭建了强度-相位级联调制的微波光子下变频系统,利用自行研制的直流偏置反馈控制模块确保强度调制器的工作状态稳定,对系统进行了性能测试。实验结果表明,增益和无杂散动态范围分别为-6.65dB和108.62dB/Hz~(2/3),与传统的强度调制器级联下变频链路相比,增益和无杂散动态范围分别提高了3.56dB和19.87dB。基于强度和相位级联调制的下变频方法仅需要单个偏置电压,且可通过反馈模块实现工作状态的稳定控制,系统结构简单、性能稳定,可实现大动态范围的微波光子下变频。     

Flexible lock-in detection system based on synchronized computer plug-in boards applied in sensitive gas spectroscopy

We present a flexible and compact, digital, lock-in detection system and its use in high-resolution tunable diode laser spectroscopy. The system involves coherent sampling, and is based on the synchronization of two data acquisition cards running on a single standard computer. A software-controlled arbitrary waveform generator is used for laser modulation, and a four-channel analog/digital board records detector signals. Gas spectroscopy is performed in the wavelength modulation regime. The coherently detected signal is averaged a selected number of times before it is stored or analyzed by software-based, lock-in techniques. Multiple harmonics of the modulation signal (1f, 2f, 3f, 4f, etc.) are available in each single data set. The sensitivity is of the order of 10(-5), being limited by interference fringes in the measurement setup. The capabilities of the system are demonstrated by measurements of molecular oxygen in ambient air, as well as dispersed gas in scattering materials, such as plants and human tissue.     

Matrix of the covariance of covariance of acceleration responses for damage detection from ambient vibration measurements

A new matrix on the covariance of covariance is formed from the auto/cross-correlation function of acceleration responses of a structure under white noise ambient excitation. The components of the covariance matrix are proved to be function of the modal parameters (modal frequency, mode shape, and damping parameter) of the structure. Information from all the vibration modes of the structure limited by the sampling frequency contributes to these components. The formulated covariance matrix contains more information on the vibration modes of the structure that cannot be obtained by the general methods for extracting modal parameters. When the component of the covariance matrix is used for damage detection, it is found more sensitive to local stiffness reduction than the first few modal frequencies and mode shapes obtained from ambient excitation. A simply supported 31 bar plane truss structure is studied numerically where a multiple damage scenario with different noise levels is identified with satisfactory results.     

脉冲调频法测距在机载PD雷达中的应用研究

文中对机载脉冲多普勒雷达在HPRF（高脉冲重复频率）状态下,使用PRF转换法和线性调频测距的优缺点进行了比较分析,提出了采用二者综合运用的测距方法。结果表明,该方法能够在HPR．F工作模式下完成远距离目标速度测量的同时,获得精度较高的距离测量值。     

Two new microscopical variants of thermomechanical modulation: scanning thermal expansion microscopy and dynamic localized thermomechanical analysis

We describe two ways in which thermomechanical modulation may be used in conjunction with scanning thermal microscopy, in order to distinguish between different components of an inhomogeneous sample. The sample is subjected to a modulated mechanical stress, and the heating is supplied locally by the probe itself.
Scanning thermal expansion microscopy is an imaging mode, in which an imposed localized temperature modulation is used to generate thermal expansion, which in turn produces mechanical strain and gives thermal expansion contrast images. We present results using two types of active thermal probe. For polymer/resin samples, the depth of material contributing to the measured thermal expansion is typically a few micrometres. Under certain conditions we observe a reversal in contrast as the frequency of the temperature modulation is increased.
In dynamic localized thermomechanical analysis, the modulated stress is applied directly, and accompanied by a localized temperature change, as used in other forms of localized thermal analysis. The resulting modulated lateral force signals are obtained. The glass transition of polystyrene is detected, and shows a significant variation with frequency. The amplitude or phase signal may be used to obtain image contrast for inhomogeneous samples.     

基于EMD和HT的旋转机械振动信号时频分析

把一列时间序列数据通过经验模态分解(Empirical Mode Decomposition，简称EMD)成本征模函数组(Intrinsic Mode Function．简称IMF)．然后经希尔伯特变换(Hilbert Transformation，简称HT)获得频谱的信号时频分析新方法引入到旋转机械振动信号处理领域。介绍了该方法的理论和算法。首先．采用调频调幅仿真信号对该方法进行仿真验证；其次．把一实测的旋转机械油膜涡动故障振动信号进行了基于EMD和HT的时频分析。仿真和实测信号的分析结果说明．用基于EMD和HT方法对旋转机械的振动信号进行时频分析是有效的。     

Multidie LED combined with homogenizing optics to improve frequency response and intensity for FLIM applications

Application of light‐emitting diodes (LEDs) in frequency‐domain fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) has been limited by the trade‐off between modulation frequency and illumination intensity of LEDs, which affects the signal‐to‐noise ratio in fluorescence lifetime measurements. To increase modulation frequency without sacrificing output power of LEDs, we propose to use LEDs with multiple dice connected in series. The LED capacitance was reduced with series connection; therefore, the frequency response of multidie LED was significantly increased. LEDs in visible light, including blue, green, amber and red, were all applicable in FLIM. We also present a homogenizing optics design, so that multidie LEDs produced uniform illumination on the same focal spot. When the homogenizing optics was combined with multicolour emitters, it provides multiple colour selection in a compact and convenient design.