Dynamic aspects of liking: post-prandial persistence of sensory specific satiety

The time dependence of the liking of foodstuffs was investigated in a study with 25 subjects, consisting of three parts: (1) on day one, a sensory specific satiety study, which was extended until 125 min after consumption; (2) on days two to seven, a repeated in home taste and evaluation study; (3) on day eight, a second sensory specific satiety study as in 1.In parts 1 and 3, subjects were asked to eat either cheese biscuits or pears in light syrup to satiety. The change in liking of both foodstuffs, after eating one of the two foodstuffs to satiety, was followed during 125 min. In part 2, the same subjects were asked to taste and evaluate each product at home, every day for six days.In the sensory specific satiety studies (parts 1 and 3) a significant decrease in liking was observed for the product eaten to satiety, as long as 125 min after consuming that product to satiety. For both products contrast effects were observed: the liking of the uneaten product increased after eating the other product to satiety, while the liking of the eaten product decreased. This contrast effect lasted longer after eating cheese biscuits to satiety, than after eating pears to satiety.In the in home taste and evaluation study, a significant and linear decrease in liking was observed for both products during six days. There was a significant effect (p < 0.05) of eating cheese biscuits to satiety in the sensory specific satiety study on day 1, on the liking ratings of the in home consumption study. No such effect was observed for the pears.The results indicate that sensory specific satiety is relatively strong for more than 2 h after consumption and can have effects on liking ratings for more than 24 h. These effects were different for the products tested. Based on these results, we suggest that combining eating a product to satiety and in home evaluation over several days, could possibly be useful as an accelerated method to predict changes in liking upon repeated consumption.     

The silver sensory experience – A review of senior consumers’ food perception,liking and intake

It is commonly assumed that sensory impairments occurring with age negatively affect older people’s intake of foods in terms of both quality and quantity. This review discusses evidence published on the effects of age on sensory perception and the consequences for independently living seniors’ perception, liking and intake of food products. Because of anatomical changes in all the senses involved in human food perception, on average seniors perceive a lower flavour intensity than younger adults, are less sensitive to changes in the flavour profile of foods, and show a decreased ability to discriminate between different intensity levels of flavour and/or taste attributes. However, despite these differences in their sensory perception of foods, young adults and seniors seem to differ less in their initial hedonic appraisal of food products. Nonetheless, more research is needed to determine whether multisensory enrichment of foods across different modalities may lead to increased food liking in seniors both with and without olfactory impairment. Although limited, the current evidence suggests that sensory performance may be positively associated with BMI or body weight in specific senior populations. In addition, seniors fail to show a decreased appreciation of an eaten food, thereby increasing the risk of a monotonous diet. Taken together, these findings highlight the need for appropriate interventions and/or foods to improve and maintain adequate quantity and quality of food intake among independently living seniors, and especially those with low sensory performance. Such interventions should be holistic rather than focused on one modality and may also incorporate hedonic modulators such as past experiences, affective factors and external cues, e.g. brand names, labels or food packaging. In interventions and product development, segmentation of the senior consumer market is strongly advised to identify more homogeneous subgroups in order to deal with the large heterogeneity between independently living seniors. It is concluded that one size of the silver food experience will most likely not fit all senior consumers!     

Appetite‐Inducing Effects of Homoeriodictyol: Two Randomized,Cross‐Over Interventions

1 Scope

Anorexia of aging, characterized by a decrease in appetite and/or food intake, is a major risk factor of under‐nutrition and adverse health outcomes in elderly people. Recent in vitro evidence suggests homoeriodictyol (HED), a naturally occurring, bitter‐masking flavanone, as a promising agent to increase appetite and food intake.

2 Methods and results

In two cross‐over intervention trials, 30 mg NaHED, either solely (n = 10, Study I) or in combination with a 75 g glucose load (n = 17, study II) were administered to healthy adult subjects. Ratings of hunger were assessed at fasting and either 30 min (Study I) or 120 min (Study II) post intervention. Ad libitum energy intake from a standardized breakfast and plasma changes in hunger‐/satiety‐associated hormones PYY, GLP‐1, ghrelin and serotonin were determined after blood drawings. Effects were more pronounced when NaHED was administered in combination with 75 g glucose since ad libitum energy (+ 9.52 ± 4.60%) and protein (+ 7.08 ± 7.97%) intake as well as plasma ΔAUC ghrelin values increased in study II solely, whereas plasma serotonin concentrations decreased after both interventions.

3 Conclusions

NaHED demonstrated appetizing effects in healthy adults when administered with a glucose load. Long‐term intervention studies are warranted to verify these effects in compromised subjects.     

How sweetness intensity and thickness of an oral nutritional supplement affects intake and satiety

Oral nutritional supplements (ONS) can be used to improve the nutritional status of malnourished patients, but their effectiveness depends on adequate intake. This is not always achieved due to the disliked flavour and satiating properties of ONS. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of sweetness intensity and thickness on intake and sensory sequential profile of an ONS. It was hypothesized that lower sweetness intensity and thickness would decrease oro-sensory stimulation and satiety, improve the sensory profile, and thus, improve ONS intake.The effect of sweetness intensity and thickness on intake and satiety was investigated using a 2 × 2 design (low-high-sweetness and thin/thick). Participants (n = 36) consumed each ONS to satiation. Each ONS was identical in macronutrient and calorie content. Appetite and thirst were measured throughout the morning of the test. Additionally, an expert sensory panel (n = 11), performed a sensory sequential profile of each ONS.No effect of sweetness intensity was found. Results showed that 33% more of the thin, compared to thick, ONS was consumed, without affecting satiety. Furthermore, mouth-drying first increased, up to a consumption volume of 300 ml, and then decreased, independent of sweetness intensity and thickness.In conclusion, this study showed that an ONS with lower thickness increased intake in healthy adults, without affecting satiety. This implies that, for ONS, attention should not be solely focused on nutritional content. Instead, a sensory-nutrition approach is recommended that balances nutritional content with oro-sensory cues. This proof of concept should be further investigated with malnourished older adults.     

Effects of dietary polyphenols on neuroregulatory factors and pathways that mediate food intake and energy regulation in obesity

Polyphenols are natural substances and are enriched in vegetables, fruits, grains, bark, tea, and wine. Some polyphenols have insulin‐potentiating and anti‐inflammatory effects, both of which are important in obesity. Dietary supplementation with polyphenolic compounds is associated with reduced diet‐induced obesity and/or metabolic syndrome in animal and human studies. Insights into mechanisms that regulate food intake and satiety have led to an increased understanding of obesity but the pathogenesis underlying obesity is lacking. Food intake is subject to a complex regulation by the hypothalamus and other brain centers including the brain stem and the hippocampus. An intricate network of interacting feedback mechanisms that involve the aforementioned neural centers along with the stomach, gut, liver, thyroid, and adipose tissue in the periphery, influence the eventual outcome of food intake and satiety. Key peripheral signals, such as leptin, insulin, and ghrelin, have been linked to hypothalamic neuropeptide systems in energy regulation. This review will examine the neural centers important in food intake, the role of various neuropeptides, and the neurohormonal influence on food intake. The potential role of polyphenols in influencing the neuroregulatory factors, the neural signaling pathways and/or the peripheral feedback mechanisms that modulate food intake will also be examined.     

A Review of the Alleged Health Hazards of Monosodium Glutamate

Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is an umami substance widely used as flavor enhancer. Although it is generally recognized as being safe by food safety regulatory agencies, several studies have questioned its long‐term safety. The purpose of this review was to survey the available literature on preclinical studies and clinical trials regarding the alleged adverse effects of MSG. Here, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the reported possible risks that may potentially arise following chronic exposure. Preclinical studies have associated MSG administration with cardiotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, neurotoxicity, low‐grade inflammation, metabolic disarray, and premalignant alterations, along with behavioral changes. However, in reviewing the available literature, we detected several methodological flaws, which led us to conclude that these studies have limited relevance for extrapolation to dietary human intake of MSG risk exposure. Clinical trials have focused mainly on MSG effects on food intake and energy expenditure. Besides its well‐known impact on food palatability, MSG enhances salivary secretion and interferes with carbohydrate metabolism, while the impact on satiety and post‐meal recovery of hunger varied in relation to meal composition. Reports on MSG hypersensitivity or links of its use to increased pain sensitivity and atopic dermatitis were found to have little supporting evidence. Many of the reported negative health effects of MSG have little relevance for chronic human exposure and are poorly informative as they are based on excessive dosing that does not meet with levels normally consumed in food products. We conclude that further clinical and epidemiological studies are needed, with an appropriate design, accounting for both added and naturally occurring dietary MSG.     

不同质构特性西蓝花对口腔加工行为和米饭餐饱腹感的影响

为探究同样原料不同质构蔬菜对口腔加工行为、食物摄入和饱腹感的影响,以两种熟西蓝花为研究对象,分析健康受试者同时食用西蓝花与米饭或先食用西蓝花、后食用米饭时的口腔加工行为,并测定食物摄入量及餐后饱腹感相关指标。结果表明：与同时进食软西蓝花和米饭相比,先进食硬西蓝花、后进食米饭的处理可增加44%的咀嚼次数、34%的口腔感官暴露时间、57%的单位质量咀嚼次数,进食速率和米饭摄入量分别降低25%和20%,并有效抑制餐后饥饿感。结论：较硬西蓝花可通过促进口腔加工效应从而降低食物摄入并抑制餐后饥饿感,而这种效应在先进食西蓝花时表现得更为显著。     

Smelling our appetite? The influence of food odors on congruent appetite,food preferences and intake

We are surrounded by sensory food cues, such as odors, that may trigger (un)conscious decisions and even lead to (over)eating, it is therefore crucial to better understand the effect of food odors on behavioral responses. Food odor exposure has been shown to enhance appetite for food products with similar properties: sensory-specific appetite. This suggests that based on previous encounters with foods, we have learned to detect the nutritional content of foods, through our sense of smell. We investigated the influence of aware exposure of macronutrient-related odors on various measures of eating behavior, in a cross-over intervention study. Thirty two normal-weight healthy and unrestrained Dutch females took part in five test sessions. On each test session, they were exposed to one of five conditions (active smelling of clearly noticeable odors representing food high in carbohydrates, protein, and fat, low in calories, and a no-odor condition for 3-min) and assessed on specific appetite, food preferences and intake. Odor exposure increased congruent appetite after protein-related odor exposure. Similarly, protein-related odor exposure influenced the liking for protein foods and the preference ranking for savory products. However, food intake was not affected by smelling congruent food odors. Together this indicates that exposure to (aware) food odors may mostly influence appetite, but does not impact subsequent food intake. Moreover, appetite seems to be triggered by taste qualities rather than macronutrient information of the food, as signaled by olfactory cues. Future studies should investigate the role of awareness in more detail, to fully understand how odors might be used to steer people towards healthier food choices.     

Enhancing expected food intake behaviour,hedonics and sensory characteristics of oil-in-water emulsion systems through microstructural properties,oil droplet size and flavour

Food reformulation, either to reduce nutrient content or to enhance satiety, can negatively impact upon sensory characteristics and hedonic appeal, whilst altering satiety expectations. Within numerous food systems, perception of certain sensory attributes, known as satiety-relevant sensory cues, have been shown to play a role in food intake behaviour. Emulsions are a common food structure; their very nature encourages reformulation through structural design approaches. Manipulation of emulsion design has been shown to change perceptions of certain sensory attributes and hedonic appeal, but the role of emulsions in food intake behaviour is less clear. With previous research yet to identify emulsion designs which promote attributes that act as satiety-relevant sensory cues within emulsion based foods, this paper investigates the effect of oil droplet size (d_4,3: 0.2–50 μm) and flavour type (Vanilla, Cream and No flavour) on sensory perception, hedonics and expected food intake behaviour. By identifying these attributes, this approach will allow the use of emulsion design approaches to promote the sensory characteristics that act as satiety-relevant sensory cues and/or are related to hedonic appeal. Male participants (n = 24) assessed the emulsions. Oil droplet size resulted in significant differences (P < 0.05) in ratings of Vanilla and Cream flavour intensity, Thickness, Smoothness, Creamy Mouthfeel, Creaminess, Liking, Expected Filling and Expected Hunger in 1 h’s time. Flavour type resulted in significant differences (P < 0.05) in ratings of Vanilla and Cream flavour intensity, Sweetness and Liking. The most substantial finding was that by decreasing oil droplet size, Creaminess perception significantly increased. This significantly increases hedonic appeal, in addition to increasing ratings of Expected Filling and decreased Expected Hunger in 1 h’s time, independently of energy content. If this finding is related to actual eating behaviour, a key target attribute will have been identified which can be manipulated through an emulsions droplet size, allowing the design of hedonically appropriate satiating foods.     

The development of a perceived satiety index for military rations

Studies were conducted to index the perceived satiety value of a variety of military ration items, to assess the relationship of the food's nutrient composition, physical, and sensory properties to satiety, and to determine the ability of the sum of the satiety indices for individual meal components to predict total meal satiety.

Equicaloric 300 kcal portions of 17 common military ration items and two commercial food items were tested. Satiety measures were obtained before consumption, immediately after consumption and every 15 min thereafter for 1 h. Ratings of acceptability and sensory attributes (sweet, salty, chewy, moist, dense, fatty/oily/creamy) were also obtained. The area under the 75-min response curve (AUC) was used to quantify the overall satiety responses to each item. A satiety index (SI) was calculated by dividing the mean AUC for each food item by the mean AUC for a reference food. Significant differences were found in perceived satiety among the nineteen food items. The mean AUC was greatest for oatmeal, which was 4.78 times higher than the lowest AUC. A stepwise regression analysis was used to examine the relationship of individual food characteristics (macronutrient content, weight in grams, and volume), initial satiety level, sensory attributes, and liking to overall satiety. The obtained model revealed four variables that contributed significantly to perceived satiety: initial satiety, fat and protein content, and the perception of fatty/oily/creamy. Higher initial satiety (fullness) and higher fat content were associated with lower perceived satiety, while higher protein content and higher fatty/oily/creamy ratings were associated with greater satiety. A regression analysis to determine whether the sum of individual item satiety scores (AUCs), adjusted for serving size, could be used to predict the overall satiety of a meal resulted in a predictive equation with an R²_Adj of 0.54. The intercept of the equation was close to zero and the slope (0.69) was interpreted as representing a correction factor for the diminishing growth of perceived satiety as a function of increasing kilocalories.

Overall, the data show that it is possible to index the perceived satiety value of individual ration components and meals, and that by developing a better understanding of the influence of the nutrient composition, physical, and sensory properties of a food on perceived satiety, it may be possible to develop or select ration components that produce lower levels of perceived satiety and which, in turn, may lead to increased consumption under field conditions.     

Satiety Effects of Lentils in a Calorie Matched Fruit Smoothie

The food environment is changing, with consumers being more health conscious and concerned about the wholesomeness of their food than ever before. Consumers are looking for nutritious whole food alternatives to fill their plates and stomachs. Pulse grains, rich in both protein and fiber, may be the ideal candidate to promote satiety at meals. In a crossover feeding study, participants consumed calorie‐matched fruit smoothies prepared with either an ice cream base or pureed red lentils. Self‐reported satiety, blood glucose response, and ad libitum food intake at a secondary meal were all measured along with breath hydrogen and methane and gastrointestinal tolerance. While there was no significant difference in satiety response or energy intake at the secondary meal, the nutrient profile of the lentil smoothie was improved with increased protein and fiber and dramatically lower fat content. Blood glucose response was not statistically different between the 2 treatments. Both smoothies were generally well tolerated; however, there was a slightly elevated AUC for perceived gastrointestinal tolerance over 24 h in the lentil smoothie. No difference in breath hydrogen or methane response was seen between treatments. The substitution of lentils into a meal is not likely to improve satiety; however lentils are a good source of fiber and protein and can greatly improve nutritional content of the meal.     

Raisin Consumption by Humans: Effects on Glycemia and Insulinemia and Cardiovascular Risk Factors

Raisins are widely recommended as good foods and preferred snacks because of their nutrient content. They are rich in dietary fiber, potassium, and many health‐promoting phytonutrients and antioxidants. Raisins have a high dietary fiber score. Laboratory studies document that raisins rank in the upper quartile of foods for antioxidant content. Clinical research related to the potential health benefits of raisins has intensified over the past 10 y. Much of this research has focused on blood glucose and insulin responses to raisins compared to other foods or snacks. Meal studies indicate that raisins have a low to moderate glycemic index and a low insulinemic index. Longer term studies suggest that customary intake of raisins is associated with lower postprandial blood glucose values than with equicaloric control foods. Cross‐sectional studies suggest that higher levels of dried fruit consumption are associated with lower systolic and diastolic blood pressure than seen with minimal dried fruit use. One clinical study documents that raisin intake over 12 wk is accompanied by a significant reduction in blood pressure. Preliminary results indicate that raisins are associated with increased satiety and decreased food consumption over an 8‐h period, but the potential benefits of raisins for weight loss have not been assessed. Raisin intake is accompanied by reductions in serum low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, and oxidized low‐density cholesterol values. Thus, raisins have the potential to significantly reduce the risk for developing diabetes or cardiovascular disease.     

Rheological,tribological and sensory attributes of texture-modified foods for dysphagia patients and the elderly: A review

Texture-modified foods (TMFs) and thickened fluids have been used as a therapeutic strategy in the management of food intake in the elderly and people with dysphagia. Despite recent advances in describing rheological features of TMFs for dysphagia management, there is still paucity of research regarding the sensory attributes, therapeutic thickness levels and swallowing safety of these foods. Additionally, the relationship between mechanical and structural properties of TMFs throughout the oral processing is not yet fully understood. The present review discusses several properties of food boluses that are important during oral processing to allow for safe swallowing. Dynamic changes that occur during oral processing of TMFs will be reviewed. The use of hydrocolloids to improve the cohesiveness of TMFs and how this impacts the sensory properties of TMFs will be also discussed. Additionally, this review will suggest potential new research directions to improve textural and sensory properties of TMFs.     

Shedding light on human tissue (in vivo) to predict satiation,satiety, and food intake using near infrared reflectance spectroscopy: A preliminary study

The aim of this study was to evaluate the ability of a portable near infrared (NIR) instrument to collect the spectra in vivo of different tissues in healthy individuals and to relate their spectral information with food and energy intake, satiation, and satiety data. In this study, a hand-held NIR instrument was used to collect the spectra of different human tissues (e.g. arm, ear, face, jaw and wrist) with partial least squares (PLS) regression used to relate the NIR data with food and energy intake, satiation, and satiety measured in healthy individuals. The coefficient of determination in cross-validation (R²_CV) and the standard error in cross validation (SECV) for the prediction of satiety ranged between 0.58 and 0.62 and 223.3–235.0 total area under the curve (AUC), respectively, depending on the tissue analysed. The PLS cross-validation models based on the NIR spectra collected in both the arm and face tissues gave the best prediction of food intake (R² _CV 0.47–0.51, SECV 110.8-115 g). No workable calibrations were developed for the prediction of satiation, which might be associated with the inherent complexity of this parameter as well as the experimental conditions used to collect the data (e.g. type of tissue analysed). These results demonstrated the potential ability of in vivo NIR spectroscopy to identify tissue differences associated with satiety and food intake in individuals. However, a wider variety of food types, diets, and human subjects (samples) are needed to develop robust relationships between the NIR spectra of a tissue with both satiety and food intake.     

影响饱腹感的成分及其生理功能的研究进展

摄食是是影响人们在短期内的能量获取的重要因素。过度的食物摄入造成人体非必需能量增加,引发肥胖、糖尿病、冠心病等疾病。为改善营养过量摄入现状,人们通过产生自身饱腹感来降低食物摄入量。有研究表明,含有膳食纤维,淀粉,蛋白质的食物摄入后会产生强烈饱腹感,能够有效减少能量摄入,但是人们却对其中的机制知之甚少。本文主要对人体饱腹感产生机理、产生饱腹感的物质种类(膳食纤维,淀粉,蛋白质)及其生理功能进行论述,旨在为人类健康饮食和预防疾病的研究提供思路。     

Social and physiological factors affecting food intake in elderly subjects: an experimental comparative study

The decline in average food intake in elderly people is attributed to both physiological and social factors. These factors are usually studied in isolation. The present study concerns an experiment in which the effect of social setting on food intake is compared with the effect of physiological challenges on food intake in 24 elderly subjects (6 men and 18 women, age: 75± 4.9 years, BMI=26.6±3.5 kg/m²). Physiological effects were assessed using a preload-test-meal design with a no load, 0 kJ; and 4 preload conditions: low carbohydrate/low fat, low energy, 0.4 MJ; high fat, low carbohydrate, medium energy, 1.1 MJ; high carbohydrate, low fat, medium energy 1.1 MJ; high fat, high carbohydrate, high energy, 1.8 MJ. The preloads consisted of 300 g of strawberry yogurt drink, and were served at 10:00 a.m. The test-meal, served 90 min after the preload consumption, was a lunch of which subjects could eat ad libitum. Social effects on food intake were assessed by using two social settings at lunchtime: cozy and non-cozy. Dependent variables were food intake at lunch and ratings of appetite assessed before the preload, and between preload and test-meal. Results showed that energy intake at lunch was significantly decreased after the high carbohydrate preload and the high fat–high carbohydrate preload (intake compensation of 23 and 15%, respectively), compared to the no preload condition. The other preloads did not have a significant effect on food intake. Energy intake was of 2.5±0.5 MJ in the cozy social setting and of 2.5±0.6 MJ in the non-cozy one. Appetite feelings were generally lower after the preload conditions compared to the no load condition (P<0.05), but there were no significant effects of the macronutrient or energy content of the preloads on appetite feelings. It is concluded within the context of this study in healthy elderly subjects that food intake responds more to physiological challenges than to short-term changes in social settings.     

Perception of taste and smell in elderly persons

By the turn of the century, there will be considerable shifts in demographics, including a massive increase in our aging population. As we plan for better nutrition in the twenty‐first century, the special sensory and nutritional needs of the elderly must be taken into account. Chemosensory losses, specifically decrements in the senses of taste and smell, can lead to inadequate intake, especially in the elderly sick. These losses result not only from anatomic changes that occur during normal aging but also from certain diseases; pharmacological and surgical interventions, radiation, and environmental pollutants. The design of foods for the elderly that could both compensate for these chemosensory losses and meet nutritional needs presents new challenges and opportunities for the food industry.     

The Effects of a Beef‐Based Meal Compared to a Calorie Matched Bean‐Based Meal on Appetite and Food Intake

Protein and fiber have strong satiety‐inducing potential. Beef is a high quality, protein‐rich food. Beans contain moderate levels of protein as well as fiber. To determine the effects of a high protein meal (beef) compared to a moderate protein, high fiber meal (beans) on subjective appetite and energy intake at a subsequent meal twenty‐eight adults, 14 men (ages 24 ± 5 y, BMI 23 ± 2 kg/m²) and 14 women (ages 25 ± 5 y, BMI 22 ± 2 kg/m²) consumed 2 test lunches containing a “meatloaf” made from either beef or beans. The beef meal provided 26 g of protein and 3 g of fiber while the bean meal provided 17 g of protein and 12 g of fiber. An ad libitum snack was given 3 h after the test meal. Visual analogue scales were used to assess hunger, satiety, fullness, and prospective food intake. Gastrointestinal (GI) tolerance was assessed over 24 h. No difference between the beef and bean was observed for appetite ratings over 3 h, food intake at the subsequent meal (632 ± 75 kcal compared with 611 ± 75 kcal, respectively), or sum of GI score (2.2 ± 0.5 compared with 2.9 ± 0.5, respectively). Gas and bloating were reported more often after the bean meal than the beef meal (2.0 ± 0.4 compared with 1.3 ± 0.4, P value 0.057). A beef‐based meal with high protein and a bean‐based meal with moderate protein and high fiber produced similar satiety, while the bean‐based meal resulting in higher, yet moderate, gas and bloating.     

The influence of oral lubrication on food intake: A proof-of-concept study

As overeating, overweight and obesity remain public health concerns, it is crucial to design satiety-enhancing foods that suppress appetite and lower snack intake. Existing research identifies oro-sensory targets to promote satiation and satiety, yet it remains unclear as to whether it is ‘chewing’ or ‘oral lubrication’ that might amplify satiation signals. In this study, techniques from experimental psychology, food material science and mechanical engineering have been combined to develop model foods to investigate the role of chewing and oral lubrication on food intake. Novel model gels, similar in pleasantness, were given as a preload then their effects on subjective appetite and intake of a salty snack were measured in a between-subjects design. Three mint flavoured hydrogels were engineered to vary in their texture (fracture stress) and lubrication (inverse of coefficient of friction), and a control group received mint tea. Results showed that snack intake was suppressed by 32% after eating the low chewing/high lubricating preload compared to the high chewing/low lubricating preload (p < 0.05). Hunger ratings decreased from t₁ to t₃ (p < 0.05), however differences between conditions were subtle and not significant. Thus, this proof-of-concept study demonstrates that manipulating oral lubrication is a promising new construct to reduce snack intake that merits future research in the oro-sensory satiety domain.