Effects of temperature on delamination growth in a carbon/epoxy composite under fatigue loading

This paper presents a study of delamination growth in HTA/6376C carbon fibre/epoxy laminates. Tests were conducted under Mode I, Mode II and mixed-mode static and fatigue loading at both ambient conditions and elevated temperature. The results show that the strain energy release rate threshold values for delamination growth under fatigue loading are significantly lower than the critical energy release rates in static tests. At elevated temperature, the threshold values in the fatigue loading were only about 10% of the critical values in the static tests. A fractographic analysis of the delamination growth revealed that the fracture surfaces generated at elevated temperature generally were similar to the fracture surfaces generated at room temperature. Nevertheless, some differences in morphology of the fracture surfaces were observed, and their effect on the static and fatigue delamination growth is discussed in detail.     

Self-healing of delamination fatigue cracks in carbon fibre–epoxy laminate using mendable thermoplastic

This article examines the self-healing repair of delamination damage in mendable carbon fibre–epoxy laminates under static or fatigue interlaminar loading. The healing of delamination cracks in laminates containing particles or fibres of the mendable thermoplastic poly[ethylene-co-(methacrylic acid)] (EMAA) was investigated. The results showed that the formation of large-scale bridging zone of EMAA ligaments along the crack upon healing yielded a large increase (~300%) in the static mode I interlaminar fracture toughness, exceeding the requirement of full restoration. The mendable laminates retained high healing efficiency with multiple repair cycles because of the capability of EMAA to reform the bridging zone under static delamination crack growth conditions. Under fatigue loading, healing by the EMAA was found to restore the mode I fatigue crack growth resistance, with the rates of growth being slightly less than that pertinent to the unmodified laminate. The EMAA bridging zone, which generated high toughness under static loading conditions, does not develop under fatigue loading because of rapid fatigue failure of the crack bridging ligaments. Similar to the multiple healing capability of EMAA under static loading, multiple healing of delamination fatigue cracks is confirmed, with the fatigue crack growth rates remaining approximately unchanged. This study shows that EMAA was capable of full recovery of fatigue crack growth resistance and superior healing efficiency for static loading.     

A Finite Element and Experimental Analysis of Composite T-Joints Used in Wind Turbine Blades

In this study, a finite element failure model was created using ABAQUS to determine the location where delamination is initiated and its subsequent propagation. The effect of fibre-reinforced structures on delamination behaviour was studied. The composite T-joints were made of glass fabric infused with epoxy resin using a vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding technique. The veil layer and 3D weave techniques were employed to improve the properties in the through-thickness direction that can delay or prevent delamination when in service. All the pull-out tensile tests were conducted in an Instron testing machine using a specially designed test fixture. The 3D weave T-joints were found to have improved performance under both static and fatigue loading. Increasing the static properties increases fatigue life performance. The location for the through-thickness reinforcement plays an important role in extending fatigue life of the T-joints.     

FML full scale aeronautic panel under multiaxial fatigue: Experimental test and DBEM Simulation

This paper concerns the numerical and experimental characterization of the static and fatigue strength of a flat stiffened panel, designed as a Fibre Metal Laminate (FML) and made of aluminium alloy and Fibre Glass FRP. The panel is full scale and was tested under both static and fatigue bi-axial loads, applied by means of an in house designed and built multiaxial fatigue machine. The strain gauge outcomes from a preliminary static test are compared with the corresponding numerical results, getting a satisfactory correlation. A crack propagation in the FML is simulated by a two dimensional original approach based on the Dual Boundary Element Method (DBEM). To overcome the lack of experimental information on the size of delamination area an “inverse” procedure is applied: the delamination introduced in the DBEM model is calibrated in such a way to minimise the numerical and experimental growth rate differences.This approach aims at providing a general purpose evaluation tool for a better understanding of the fatigue resistance of FML panels, providing a deeper insight into the role of fibre stiffness and of delamination extension on the Stress Intensity Factors. The experimental test was realized in the context of a European research project (DIALFAST).     

Acoustic Emission-Based Methodology to Evaluate Delamination Crack Growth Under Quasi-static and Fatigue Loading Conditions

The aim of this study was to investigate the applicability of acoustic emission (AE) technique to evaluate delamination crack in glass/epoxy composite laminates under quasi-static and fatigue loading. To this aim, double cantilever beam specimens were subjected to mode I quasi-static and fatigue loading conditions and the generated AE signals were recorded during the tests. By analyzing the mechanical and AE results, an analytical correlation between the AE energy with the released strain energy and the crack growth was established. It was found that there is a 3rd degree polynomial correlation between the crack growth and the cumulative AE energy. Using this correlation the delamination crack growth was predicted under both the static and fatigue loading conditions. The predicted crack growth values was were in a good agreement with the visually recorded data during the tests. The results indicated that the proposed AE-based method has good applicability to evaluate the delamination crack growth under quasi-static and fatigue loading conditions, especially when the crack is embedded within the structure and could not be seen visually.     

Numerical simulation of fatigue‐driven delamination using interface elements

This paper presents a computational technique for the prediction of fatigue‐driven delamination growth in composite materials. The interface element, which has been extensively applied to predict delamination growth due to static loading, has been modified to incorporate the effects of cyclic loading. Using a damage mechanics formulation, the constitutive law for the interface element has been extended by incorporating a modified version of a continuum fatigue damage model. The paper presents details of the fatigue degradation strategy and examples of the predicted fatigue delamination growth in mode I, mode II and mixed mode I/II are presented to demonstrate that the numerical model mimics the Paris law behaviour usually observed in experimental testing. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Fatigue Behaviour of Composite T-Joints in Wind Turbine Blade Applications

This paper presents a study of fatigue performance of composite T-joints used in wind-turbine blades. A T-joint with various fibre reinforcement architectures were selected to investigate its fatigue behaviour. The 3D angle interlock T-joint was found to have the best performance in both static and fatigue loading. Increasing the static properties increases fatigue performance while the increasing rate in life performance is changed with the number of fatigue cycles. A finite element (FE) model was developed that can determine the stress distribution and the initiation and propagation of a delamination crack. The location for through-thickness reinforcement is very important to improve fatigue performance of composite T-joints. Fatigue performance is significantly improved for the web with through-thickness reinforcement while fatigue performance is decreased if the through-thickness reinforcement is applied to the flange-skin regions. The interlaminar veil significantly increases the ultimate strength under static load but fatigue performance at high stress cycles is increased but not significantly.     

Analysis of the fracture behaviour of a stitched single-lap joint

The effect of stitching on the fracture response of single-lap composite joints was studied by a combined experimental and numerical analysis. Unstitched and Kevlar stitched joints were tested under static and fatigue loading to characterize damage progression and failure modes; a three-dimensional finite element analysis was carried out to evaluate the influence of stitches on strain energy release rates as a function of damage and to identify the role of various stitching parameters on the fracture behaviour of joints.It was observed that the failure of the joints occurs as a consequence of the propagation of delamination at the interface between the adherends; the propagation is stable under fatigue loads and unstable under static loads. Stitching does not improve the static strength of joints but significantly prolongs the duration of the crack propagation phase under fatigue loading.The results of finite element modelling indicate that the incorporation of stitches reduce G_I to zero after the delamination front passes the stitch line, but it is not effective in reducing mode II energy release rate. They also show that strain energy release rates are not greatly affected by the length of stitch-laminate debonding, which, conversely, does influence stitch tensioning. Moreover, 3D analysis reveals that stitches become less efficient in reducing the crack driving force with increasing stitching steps.     

Influence of the matrix constituent on mode I and mode II delamination toughness in fiber-reinforced polymer composites under cyclic fatigue

Mode I and mode II fracture behaviour under static and dynamic loading was analyzed in two composites made up of the same reinforcement though embedded in two different matrices. Specifically, the delamination energy under static and dynamic loading was obtained for both materials and both fracture modes, i.e. the number of cycles necessary for the onset of fatigue delamination. Subsequently, the crack growth rate (delamination rate) was obtained for different percentages of the critical energy rate. The main goal of the study was to ascertain the influence of the matrix on the behaviour of the laminate under fatigue loading.From the experimental results for the onset of delamination, similar fatigue behaviour was observed at a low number of cycles for both matrices and both fracture modes, while in fatigue at a high number of cycles, a higher fatigue limit was obtained in the composite with the modified resin (higher toughness) for both fracture modes. From the point of view of crack growth rate, both materials behaved similarly for different levels of stress under fatigue and the two fracture modes for small crack lengths (initial growth zone < 5 mm), although the growth rate increased for large crack lengths. This behaviour was the same in both loading modes.     

A cut-ply specimen for the mixed-mode fracture toughness and fatigue characterisation of FRPs

The characterisation of mixed-mode fracture toughness and fatigue delamination growth in fibre-reinforced composites is crucial for assessing the integrity of structural elements in service. An asymmetric cut-ply coupon (ACP) loaded in four-point bending is here proposed to carry out the aforementioned characterisations. Analytical expressions of the energy release rate and mode-mixity for the ACP are derived and validated by means of finite element analysis. A fracture toughness and fatigue characterisation of the carbon/epoxy material IM7/8552 is carried out via ACP specimens. It is proved that the material data obtained from ACP specimens match those generated using ASTM standard mixed-mode bending (MMB) coupons. The main reason for the introduction of the ACP test resides in its applicability to characterisation scenarios where measuring the delamination length with optical means, as required for MMB coupons, is difficult. Such scenarios include the investigation of static and fatigue delamination growth at low and high temperatures, which requires the usage of environmental chambers. This poses significant constraints in terms of volume available for the test rigs, and, most importantly, limitations on visual access to observe delamination propagation. However, the manufacturing of ACP coupons is more complex than for MMB specimens and the testing requires several additional precautions that are here discussed in detail.     

High performance estimations of delamination of graphite/epoxy laminates with electric resistance change method

Delamination of laminated composites is usually invisible or difficult to detect visually. Delamination causes low reliability for primary structures. Automatic systems for in-service delamination identifications are desired to improve low reliability. The present study employs an electric resistance change method for delamination detection. Since the method adopts reinforcement carbon fiber itself as sensors for delamination detection, this method does not reduce static or fatigue strength; also, the method is applicable to existing structures. Authors have found that the electric resistance change method with response surfaces is very effective experimentally and analytically. However, a large error of estimation remains for estimation of delamination location. In the present study, a new data processing procedure is proposed to improve performance of estimations of delamination location. The new method is applied to laminated composite beams. A delamination crack of a laminated composite beam is monitored with the new method using FEM analyses. As a result, the method reveals excellent performance of estimations of delamination location even for new data not used in regression equations.     

Study of Fatigue Behavior of Epoxy‐Carbon Composites under Mixed Mode I/II Loading

This paper presents an experimental assessment of the initiation and propagation of interlaminar cracks under mixed mode I/II dynamic fracture loading of a composite material with an MTM45‐1 epoxy matrix and unidirectional IM7 carbon‐fiber reinforcement. The aims of the experimental program developed for this purpose are to determine, on the one hand, the initiation curves of the fatigue delamination process, understood as the number of load cycles needed to generate a fatigue crack, and on the other, the crack growth rate (delamination rate) for different percentages of static Gc, in both cases for two mode mixities (0.2 and 0.4) and for a tensile ratio R = 0.1. All this with the goal of quantifying the influence of the degree of mode mixity on the overall behavior of the laminate under fatigue loading. The results show that the energy release rate increases with increasing loading levels for both degrees of mode mixity and that the fatigue limit is located around the same percentages. However, crack growth rate behavior differs from one degree of mode mixity to the other. This difference in the behavior of the material may be due to the varying influence of mode I loading on the delamination process.

     

加筋复合材料结构分层损伤的贝叶斯诊断及预测

针对复合材料结构疲劳损伤的在线监测和预测问题,提出了一种基于结构健康监测 (Structural health monitoring, SHM) 和贝叶斯理论的结构分层损伤诊断及结构剩余使用寿命预测方法。在贝叶斯概率理论框架下,采用指数模型描述复合材料结构疲劳分层损伤面积的先验演化规律,融合在线SHM数据对结构分层损伤状态,以及损伤面积演化模型的参数进行联合后验估计,即为损伤诊断结果。进一步通过后验估计得到的损伤状态和模型参数预测未来时刻结构分层损伤面积的演化,从而得到当前复合材料结构的剩余使用寿命预测结果。通过有限元仿真的加筋复合材料结构疲劳分层扩展对所提出的方法进行了验证。结果表明,方法可以在线准确地诊断结构分层损伤状态以及预测结构的剩余使用寿命。      

Bending strength of delaminated aerospace composites

Buckling-driven delamination is considered among the most critical failure modes in composite laminates. This paper examines the propagation of delaminations in a beam under pure bending. A pre-developed analytical model to predict the critical buckling moment of a thin sub-laminate is extended to account for propagation prediction, using mixed-mode fracture analysis. Fractography analysis is performed to distinguish between mode I and mode II contributions to the final failure of specimens. Comparison between experimental results and analysis shows agreement to within 5 per cent in static propagation moment for two different materials. It is concluded that static fracture is almost entirely driven by mode II effects. This result was unexpected because it arises from a buckling mode that opens the delamination. For this reason, and because of the excellent repeatability of the experiments, the method of testing may be a promising means of establishing the critical value of mode II fracture toughness, G(IIC), of the material. Fatigue testing on similar samples showed that buckled delamination resulted in a fatigue threshold that was over 80 per cent lower than the static propagation moment. Such an outcome highlights the significance of predicting snap-buckling moment and subsequent propagation for design purposes.     

Failure in laminates in tension under increasing stress,constant stress,and cyclic stress

Both monotonic and cyclic tension experiments have been carried out to fracture on transparent laminates made from flat ribbon glass and polyethylene sheets by heat bonding in a vacuum. The distribution of the measured tensile fracture stresses in monotonic loading correlates very well with the distribution of fracture stresses calculated from the measured distribution of element fracture stresses and the yield strength in shear of the polyethylene, according to a detailed statistical theory worked out earlier by Scop and Argon. Although the expected mode of fatigue damage by propagation of delamination cracks emanating from isolated stable fractures in reinforcing elements was observed, actual fatigue failure was a result of a more rapid mechanism of continued fracturing in reinforcing elements by a humidity-induced time-integrated static fatigue process. While laminates subjected to static stresses of the same magnitude as those in the dynamic experiments failed by the development of an identical form of damage during the same length of time under stress in laboratory air, other laminates tested in the same manner in dry air had 5 to 10 fold increased lives. In addition re-testing of individual elements of delaminated composites showed that elements can often be damaged during lamination, which must be taken into account in any quantitative study.     

Thermal fatigue failure induced by delamination in thermal barrier coating

The paper presents the experimental and theoretical investigation on the thermal fatigue failure induced by delamination in thermal barrier coating system. Laser heating method was used to simulate the operating state of TBC (thermal barrier coating) system. The non-destructive evaluation such as acoustic emission (AE) detect was used to study the evolution of TBC system damage. Micro-observation and AE detect both revealed that fatigue crack was in two forms: surface crack and interface delamination. It was found that interface delamination took place in the period of cooling or heating. Heating or cooling rate and temperature gradient had an important effect on interface delamination cracking propagation. A theoretical model on interface delamination cracking in TBC system at operating state is proposed. In the model, a membrane stress P and a bending moment M are designated the thermal loads of the thermal stress and temperature gradient in TBC system. In this case, the coupled effect of plastic deformation, creep of ceramic coating as well as thermal growth oxidation (TGO) and temperature gradient in TBC system was considered in the model. The thermal stress intensity factors (TSIFs) in non-FGM (functional gradient material) thermal barrier coating system is analytical obtained. The numerical results of TSIFs reveal some same results as obtained in experimental test. The model is based on fracture mechanics theory about heterogeneous materials and it gives a rigorous explanation of delaminations in TBC system loaded by thermal fatigue. Both theoretical analysis and experimental observation reveal an important fact: delaminations are fatigue cracks which grow during thermal shocks due to compressive stresses in the loading, this loads the delaminations cracks in mixed I and II mode.     

Bridging effect on mode I fatigue delamination behavior in composite laminates

This paper discusses the bridging effect of fibres on mode I fatigue delamination growth in unidirectional and multidirectional polymer composite laminates based on a series of double cantilever beam (DCB) tests. From the results, there is sufficient evidence that fibre bridging can decrease the crack growth rate da/dN significantly, and using only one fatigue resistance curve to determine the delamination behavior in composite materials with large-scale fibre bridging may be inadequate. The bridging created in fatigue delamination is different from that of quasi-static delamination at the same crack length. So it is incorrect to use the resistance curve (R-curve) from quasi-static delamination tests to normalize fatigue delamination results.     

玻璃纤维-Al 混杂复合层板的疲劳裂缝扩展行为

本文研究了一种新型结构复合材料玻璃纤维-Al 混杂复合层板(Glass Aluminum Laminates,GLALL)在不同外载荷作用下的疲劳裂缝扩展行为,以及疲劳破坏规律。试验发现,由于未断高强度纤维对裂缝的桥接作用降低了裂缝尖端的有效应力场强度因子,GLALL 的疲劳裂缝扩展速率远低于单一Al 合金。伴随 Al 合金层内疲劳裂缝的扩展,GLALL 疲劳裂缝附近区域会产生脱层破坏,脱层区宽度随外加载荷增大而增大。脱层区宽度越小,纤维对疲劳裂缝的桥接作用越强。     

Modeling delamination growth in composites under fatigue loadings of varying amplitudes

A numerical model was developed to simulate the progressive delamination of a composite subjected to mode I fatigue loading regimes of varying amplitude. The model employs a cohesive zone approach, which combines damage mechanics and fracture mechanics, and requires only standard material data as input, namely the delamination toughness and the fatigue delamination growth curve. The proposed model was validated against delamination growth data obtained from a fatigue test conducted on a DCB specimen. The model predictions agree very well with the experimental results. This model is an initial step toward life prediction of composite structures subjected to complex fatigue regimes.     

Analysis of delamination fatigue growth for delaminated piezoelectric elasto-plastic laminated beams under hygrothermal conditions

A nonlinear analysis model of fatigue delamination growth for piezoelectric elasto-plastic laminated beams under hygrothermal conditions is presented. Based on the incremental elasto-plastic constitutive equations, the incremental nonlinear governing equations of the piezoelectric elasto-plastic laminated beams with delamination are derived when taking into account the hygrothermal environments, transverse shear deformation, geometrical nonlinearity and piezoelectric effect. According to the elasto-plastic fracture dynamics and J-integral theory, the energy-release-rate along the delamination is obtained. Then, applying the Paris law, the delamination growth rate is obtained and the delamination growth lengths along the delamination fronts under cyclic loads are finally determined by using the cyclic skip method. The equations are solved by the finite difference method and iterative method as a whole. Effects of voltages, variation of temperature and humidity, delamination length and depth on the energy-release-rate and delamination growth length for the piezoelectric elasto-plastic laminated beams are discussed in numerical examples.