Scared by you: Modulation of bodily-self by emotional body-postures in autism.

Objective: Bodily self-recognition is one aspect of our ability to distinguish between self and others and is central to effective socialization. Here we explored the influence of emotional body postures on bodily self-processing in typically developing (TD) as well as in high-functioning ASD children. Method: Subjects' bodies were photographed while expressing endogenously- (self-generated, Experiment 1) or exogenously-driven body emotions (imitated upon request, Experiment 2). Postures conveying positive (happiness), negative (fearful) and neutral valences were used. These pictures served as stimuli in a visual matching-to-sample task with self and others' body-images. Results: A similar self-versus-others advantage was found in TD and in ASD children, since participants were faster with stimuli representing their own than others' body. This “self-advantage” was modulated by self-expressed emotional body postures being present with pictures of happy and neutral, but not fearful body images. This modulation was stronger when emotional postures were endogenously rather than exogenously driven. Moreover, faster responses were observed for others' fearful rather than happy or neutral body images in both groups. Conclusions: The bodily self-advantage is a low-level function present in typically developing (TD) and in high-functioning ASD children. Body postures, especially when they are endogenously generated, modulate the self and others' body processing. The advantage for processing others' fearful, comparing to others' happy and neutral, body postures may have played a crucial evolutionary role for species survival. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's use of mental state information in selecting persuasive arguments.

Whether and when children use information about others' mental states to invent or select persuasive strategies were examined. In Study 1, preschoolers, 3rd-graders, and 6th-graders (ns?=?11, 12, and 16, respectively; 17 girls) were told about story characters' persuading parents to buy pets or toys. Children were either given or not given information about story parents' beliefs and asked to invent or select appropriate arguments. Older children, but not preschoolers, used belief information to select arguments. Results were replicated in Study 2 (16 kindergartners, 16 3rd-graders; 19 girls). In Study 3, kindergartners and 1st-graders (N?=?16; 6 girls) reasoned well on false-belief tasks but not on persuasion tasks, suggesting that failure to consider mental states in persuasion was not due to lack of a belief concept. Findings suggest that mental state understanding may continue to develop after the preschool years; methodological qualifications are also considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of physical contact and association in early contamination sensitivity.

Although young children believe that contaminated substances contain imperceptible substrates, they may assume that the mere presence of a contaminant guarantees the presence of its substrates in a physically removed substance (associational contamination). In this study, the proximity of a contaminant (bug) to a beverage (juice) was systematically manipulated, and children were asked whether someone would get sick from drinking the beverage. Some preschoolers, and most 7- and 8 year-olds, recognized the need for physical contact between the bug and juice to make the juice noxious. This suggests that early contamination sensitivity includes an appreciation of the need for physical contact between contaminant and substance, but for some children the mere presence of a contaminant renders a physically removed substance noxious. Thus associational contamination sometimes plays a role in children's reasoning, as it does for adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of programs for teaching personal safety skills to preschoolers.

We compared the relative effectiveness of two educational approaches for teaching personal safety skills with 100 preschoolers. A behavioral skills training program was compared with a feelings-based program, which instructs children to trust their feelings when making safety decisions. Children's abilities to discriminate between appropriate- and inappropriate-touch requests, their prevention skills, and levels of emotional distress were assessed before, immediately, and one month after program participation. Parents and teachers were surveyed regarding children's reactions. Compared with a control presentation, both programs were effective in enhancing children's knowledge and prevention skills without making them fearful, suggesting that preschool children can benefit from such programs. However, children in the feelings-based program had difficulty recognizing the appropriateness of certain touch requests, suggesting that this approach may have limited utility with preschool-age children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship between health status and blood pressure in urban African Americans

African Americans have higher rates of hypertension and poorer health status than their white counterparts. This study assessed the relationship between health status, cardiovascular risk factors, and measured blood pressure. Free blood pressure screenings were performed at businesses and organizations located in west Baltimore. All individuals with cardiovascular risk factors were offered health education. Also, participants with a measured blood pressure of > or = 140/90 mm Hg were referred for free medical treatment. Participants completed a questionnaire that included demographics, cardiovascular risk factors, the Medical Outcomes Study SF 36, and two tests on cholesterol and heart disease knowledge. A total of 1389 African-American men and women were screened; 20% were found to have high normal blood pressure and 31% had stage 1 hypertension or higher. Those with hypertension reported lower physical functioning and poorer general health than those without high blood pressure. When compared with US normative data, participants reported higher levels in vitality and physical and emotional role functioning, more bodily pain, and poorer general health, but they were similar in physical functioning, social functioning, and mental health. Preliminary data suggest that hypertension does have an effect on health function.     

Playing linear number board games—but not circular ones—improves low-income preschoolers’ numerical understanding.

A theoretical analysis of the development of numerical representations indicated that playing linear number board games should enhance preschoolers’ numerical knowledge and ability to acquire new numerical knowledge. The effect on knowledge of numerical magnitudes was predicted to be larger when the game was played with a linear board than with a circular board because of a more direct mapping between the linear board and the desired mental representation. As predicted, playing the linear board game for roughly 1 hr increased low-income preschoolers’ proficiency on the 2 tasks that directly measured understanding of numerical magnitudes—numerical magnitude comparison and number line estimation—more than playing the game with a circular board or engaging in other numerical activities. Also as predicted, children who had played the linear number board game generated more correct answers and better quality errors in response to subsequent training on arithmetic problems, a task hypothesized to be influenced by knowledge of numerical magnitudes. Thus, playing linear number board games not only increases preschoolers’ numerical knowledge but also helps them learn from future numerical experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A longitudinal study of the social and academic competence of economically disadvantaged bilingual preschool children.

This longitudinal study was conducted to gain understanding of the social–emotional and academic development of economically disadvantaged bilingual preschool children. In Study 1, the authors combined cognitive, psychosocial, and cultural-linguistic factors to determine profiles of social competence as measured by peer play. A person-centered analysis of 207 Hispanic American preschoolers (ages 4 and 5 years) yielded 6 distinct profiles, 2 of which were socially competent and 1 of which was vulnerable. Findings revealed profile differences in social competence and a significant relationship between bilingualism and social–emotional development. In Study 2, the authors determined which profiles were associated with later academic achievement and growth of English proficiency. Findings indicated a significant relationship of early social–emotional development to later academic success and English acquisition, highlighting the role of bilingualism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mouse running activity is lowered by Brucella abortus treatment: a potential model to study chronic fatigue

We examined the prevalence of the fragile X mental retardation (FMR1) full mutation and fragile X E mutation (FMR2) among preschoolers evaluated for language delay. A total of 534 preschoolers recruited from a Developmental Pediatric or Speech and Language Disorders clinic were tested with Southern blot and polymerase chain reaction DNA analyses; 3 were found to have the FMR1 full mutation. None of the 534 children tested positive for the FMR2 full mutation; however, 3 children had unusually small FMR2 alleles suggestive of FMR2 deletions. Screening for fragile X among language-delayed preschoolers is warranted, particularly when there is a family history of mental retardation, but regardless of sex or the presence of behavioral or physical features associated with the fragile X phenotype. The potential benefit of screening for FMR2 alterations is an unexpected implication of the study and is worthy of continued exploration.     

Children's Understanding of the Transmission of Genetic Disorders and Contagious Illnesses.

The authors conducted 4 studies suggesting that children attribute different modes of transmission to genetic disorders and contagious illnesses. Study 1 presented preschoolers through 5th graders and adults with "switched-at-birth" scenarios for various disorders. Study 2 presented preschoolers with the same disorders but used contagion links in a contagion context. Studies 3 and 4 presented preschoolers and adults with novel (fictitious) illnesses to determine which cues participants would use to differentiate the modes of transmission. In the presence of kinship cues, children distinguished genetic disorders from contagious illnesses, but in the presence of contagion cues, preschoolers selectively applied contagious links primarily to contagious illnesses. With novel illnesses, preschoolers and adults inferred that permanent illnesses were more likely to be transmitted by birth parents than by contagion. These results suggest that by the preschool years, children recognize that not all disorders are transmitted exclusively through germ contagion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intentionality and knowledge in children's judgments of actor's responsibility and recipient's emotional reaction.

Two conflicting developmental accounts of how mental states are used in evaluating actors are tested by varying actors' intentionality, foreknowledge of outcome, and the values of motive and outcome. In Experiment 1, children judged a recipient's emotional reaction to three types of event: intended outcome, foreseen accident, and unforseen accident. Both 6- and 7-year-olds used intentionality and knowledge in their judgments of good and bad outcomes. Three-year-olds did not distinguish between accidents differing in actors' foreknowledge, but discriminated between intended and accidental outcomes when the accident was unforseen. In Experiment 2, children judged actor's responsibility for accidentally caused bad outcomes. Seven-year-olds, but not 5-year-olds, blamed actors for foreseen accidents more than for unforeseen accidents regardless of motive value. The results suggest that children use intentionality before knowledge in judgments of action sequences, and that actor's foreknowledge of an outcome influences children's ability to judge the intended/accidental distinction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of federal definitions of severe mental illness among children and adolescents in four communities

OBJECTIVE: Using data from an epidemiological survey, the study compared existing definitions of severe mental illness and serious emotional disturbance among children and adolescents to demonstrate the range of prevalence rates resulting from application of different definitions to the same population. METHODS: Three definitions of severe mental illness and serious emotional disturbance were applied to data from the Methods for the Epidemiology of Child and Adolescent Mental Disorders survey, with a sample of 1,285, conducted in 1991-1992 by the National Institute of Mental Health. The resulting proportions of cases identified, demographic characteristics, service use, and perceived need for services were compared. RESULTS: From 3 to 23 percent of the sampled youth met criteria for severe mental illness or serious emotional disturbance. From 40 percent to as many as 78 percent of the defined youth used a mental health service in the year before the survey. School and ambulatory specialty settings were used most frequently. Generally, more than half of the parents of children with severe mental illness or serious emotional disturbance thought that their child needed services. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence and characteristics of severe mental illness and serious emotional disturbance among children are sensitive to the definition used and its operationalization. Care should be taken by policy makers and service planners to avoid either over- or underestimating the prevalence of impaired youth in need of intensive interventions.     

We feel, therefore we are: Emotion as a basis for self-categorization and social action.

Building on intergroup emotion research, we test the idea that intergroup emotion influences self-categorization. We report two studies using minimal (Study 1) and natural (Study 2) groups in which we measured participants' emotional reactions to a group-relevant event before manipulating the emotional reactions of other ingroup members and outgroup members (anger vs. happiness in Study 1; anger vs. indifference in Study 2). Results supported the hypotheses that (a) the fit between participants' own emotional reactions and the reactions of ingroup members would influence self-categorization, and (b) the specific content of emotional reactions would shape participants' willingness to engage in collective action. This willingness was greater when emotional reactions were not only shared with other group members, but were of anger (consistent with group-based action) rather than happiness or indifference (inconsistent with group-based action). Implications for the relationship between emotion and social identities are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Inhibition of EGF and TGF-beta dependent transformation of NRK23 cells by Crk II-23 mutant]

This study explored adults' judgments of competent and dysfunctional children's behavioral adjustment based solely on children's physical appearance. Adults rated photographs of preschoolers (6 boys, 6 girls) who previously had been classified as socially competent or dysfunctional on the basis of independent, standardized teacher ratings. Participants, who were not given any information about the stimulus children, rated their photographs one at a time on measures of attractiveness, aggression, anxiety, social competence, and overall adjustment. Results indicated that dysfunctional children were easily distinguished from their competent peers. Specifically, dysfunctional children were rated as less attractive, more aggressive, more anxious, less socially competent, and more likely to have an emotional or behavioral problem than competent children. These findings (especially strong for aggressive boys), remained significant when group differences in attractiveness were statistically controlled. Implications for interpreting the current literature on attractiveness and for modification of childhood behavior disorders are discussed.     

Young children's awareness of the origins of their mental representations.

A series of studies addressed preschool-age children's ability to identify and remember the epistemic and imaginal origins of their mental representations. Study 1 revealed that children as young as 3 were able to differentiate imaginal from perceptual origins. Study 2 explored children's ability to differentiate representations formed through inference from those formed through imagination and seeing. Results revealed that 3-, 4-, and 5-year-olds differed significantly in their ability to identify and remember the sources of their mental representations. Identifying and remembering inference was the most difficult for all age groups. Results from Study 3 rule out the possibility that incorrect performance in Studies 1 and 2 resulted from an inability to remember the objects used in the tasks. Results from these studies indicate that children as young as 3 are able to differentiate mental representations based on fiction from those based on fact, but that this ability continues to develop throughout the preschool years. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What you feel is how you compare: How comparisons influence the social induction of affect.

Concordant and discordant affective reactions can occur after the mere perception of another person's affective expression. Most previous theorizing has been concerned with the explanation of affective concordance, typically referred to as emotional contagion, although discordant affect has received little attention. The authors propose an integrative account for the explanation of both outcomes based on a social comparison framework. Studies 1 and 2 suggest that two distinct types of comparison processes can trigger concordant or discordant affective reactions. Study 3 extends these findings by demonstrating that the influence of comparison processes on affect in an established mood contagion paradigm. The authors attempt to integrate previous research into the present account. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Microsuicide and suicidal threats of everyday life.

Defines microsuicide as behaviors, communications, attitudes, or life-styles that are self-induced and threatening to one's physical health, emotional well-being, or personal goals. Progressive self-denial, withdrawal, withholding, destructive dependency, and physically harmful life-styles are analyzed in terms of their function as a defense against separation and death anxieties. Rather than considering suicide and suicidal ideation as subclasses of mental illness, mental illness is conceptualized as a form of suicide. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Why dogs have puppies and cats have kittens: the role of birth in young children's understanding of biological origins

Three studies examined young children's understanding of the biologically causal role of birth in determining animal properties and species kind identity. In Studies 1 and 2, 4- to 7-year-olds and adults were told stories in which a baby was born to an animal of one species (e.g., a horse) but was adopted and raised by an animal of another species (e.g., a cow). In Study 1, children were asked to judge which parent the baby would resemble on a set of physical properties and beliefs. The majority of children were unable to say that the baby would resemble the birth parent on physical properties but share the beliefs of the adoptive parent. These results indicate that children were not using domain-specific causal understandings to reason about the origins of these properties. In Study 2, however, when asked to explicitly predict the kind of the baby, even 5-year-olds were able to reliably judge that the baby would be of the same species kind as the birth parent rather than the adoptive parent. This result suggests that children do understand at some level that birth determines species kind. Study 3 examined further the extent to which knowledge about birth influenced children's inferences about properties. Five-year-olds were asked to judge whether a baby would share a set of physical and nonphysical properties with its mother or its father. The results showed that children who knew the factual information about where babies come from (i.e., inside mommies' tummies) were more likely to attribute the mother's properties to the baby than the father's, regardless of whether the properties were physical or nonphysical. But this finding was true only if the property of one of the parents was not inherently more desirable or true than that of the other parent. In sum, the results of these 3 studies indicate that knowledge of birth does play a role in children's inferential reasoning, even for 5-year-olds, but that that role is not domain-specific. The implications for children's understanding of biological inheritance are discussed.     

Personalized inferences of emotions and appraisals: Component processes and correlates.

Examined children's abilities to consider other people's personal history when inferring their cognitive appraisals and probable emotional reactions. Study 1 explored the sources of children's difficulty in making personalized inferences of emotion. Interviewed children averaging 6, 8, and 11 years of age about a series of stories describing a person's behavior or experience in one situation, followed by a second, related situation, or about partial stories. The youngest children had trouble figuring out mental appraisals from personal history information. Older children were capable of inferring appraisals but had trouble applying them to later situations when both steps were required to infer the person's emotion. Study 2 examined the extent to which social and cognitive factors are associated with the ability to make personalized inferences among 8-year-olds. The tendency to make personalized inferences of appraisals was more clearly associated with sociometric status than with cognitive capacity measures, suggesting that this may be an important element of children's social competence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recognizing emotion in faces: Developmental effects of child abuse and neglect.

The contributions to the recognition of emotional signals of (a) experience and learning versus (b) internal predispositions are difficult to investigate because children are virtually always exposed to complex emotional experiences from birth. The recognition of emotion among physically abused and physically neglected preschoolers was assessed in order to examine the effects of atypical experience on emotional development. In Experiment 1, children matched a facial expression to an emotional situation. Neglected children had more difficulty discriminating emotional expressions than did control or physically abused children. Physically abused children displayed a response bias for angry facial expressions. In Experiment 2, children rated the similarity of facial expressions. Control children viewed discrete emotions as dissimilar, neglected children saw fewer distinctions between emotions, and physically abused children showed the most variance across emotions. These results suggest that to the extent that children's experience with the world varies, so too will their interpretation and understanding of emotional signals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)