Ethnographic Decision Tree Modeling: A Research Method for Counseling Psychology.

This article describes ethnographic decision tree modeling (EDTM; C. H. Gladwin, 1989) as a mixed method design appropriate for counseling psychology research. EDTM is introduced and located within a postpositivist research paradigm. Decision theory that informs EDTM is reviewed, and the 2 phases of EDTM are highlighted. The 1st phase, model building, is an inductive process consisting of a series of ethnographic interviews designed to describe and diagram the choices of decision makers. The 2nd phase, model validation, utilizes linear hypothesis testing borrowed from a quantitative research paradigm. During model validation, the group decision model is tested using a separate group of participants from the same population. Strengths and limitations of EDTM, and its potential applications in counseling psychology research, are emphasized. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality traits as seen by patients, therapists and other group members: The Big Five in personality disorder groups.

Interactional group psychotherapy is based on the assumption that patients bring their problematic personality problems into the group, and that feedback and the ability to test new behaviors leads to change. A corollary of this assumption is that there should be consensual validation among therapists and other group members (OGMs) regarding a patient's personality. The present study tested this corollary. 35 group patients with personality disorders were rated by themselves, their therapists, and OGMs on a measure of the Big Five personality factors. Substantial agreement was found between the therapists and OGMs regarding a target patient's personality, with lesser agreement with the target patient's self ratings. Furthermore, the degree of agreement between self and others was positively related to the number of personality disorder symptoms prior to beginning the group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Covariate measurement error and the estimation of random effect parameters in a mixed model for longitudinal data

We explore the effects of measurement error in a time-varying covariate for a mixed model applied to a longitudinal study of plasma levels and dietary intake of beta-carotene. We derive a simple expression for the bias of large sample estimates of the variance of random effects in a longitudinal model for plasma levels when dietary intake is treated as a time-varying covariate subject to measurement error. In general, estimates for these variances made without consideration of measurement error are biased positively, unlike estimates for the slope coefficients which tend to be 'attenuated'. If we can assume that the residuals from a longitudinal fit for the time-varying covariate behave like measurement errors, we can estimate the original parameters without the need for additional validation or reliability studies. We propose a method to test this assumption and show that the assumption is reasonable for the example data. We then use a likelihood-based method of estimation that involves a simple extension of existing methods for fitting mixed models. Simulations illustrate the properties estimators.     

A conventional conditioning analysis of "transitive inference" in pigeons.

As an alternative to a symbolic interpretation of transitivity in the discriminative performance of pigeons, a modified reinforcement theory (value transfer theory) was proposed by L. von Fersen et al (see record 1991-29523-001). Its novel assumption was that the value of the negative member of a pair of stimuli with which an animal is trained is enhanced by the value of the positive member of the pair. In this article, that assumption is shown to be unnecessary. All of the transitivity data for pigeons can be simulated with a simple conditioning model developed for honeybees that retains the conventional independence assumption. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A note on variance explained in the mixed analysis of variance models.

Examines assumptions about the general linear model for interaction terms in the mixed analysis of variance. Some well-known results of S. R. Searle (1971) demonstrate that the inconsistencies between J. H. Dwyer's (see record 1975-02166-001) technique and that of G. M. Vaughn and M. C. Corballis (see record 1969-16617-001) in estimating the magnitude of effect for a mixed interaction are the direct result of specific assumptions made. If it is assumed that the interaction source of variance is a random variable, then the equations obtained by Vaughn and Corballis are correct; however, if an alternative assumption is made (i.e., that the iteraction term is fixed in one direction), then Dwyer's equations are correct. Researchers are called on to be cognizant of these two sets of assumptions and to be aware of the dramatic effects they may have on estimates of magnitude of effect for mixed interactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The disease model is alive and well in Zygmunt Piotrowski.

Argues against the implicit assumption in the article by Z. A. Piotrowski (see record 1982-24817-001) that a disease or medical-model conception of human problems is adequate and should be accepted without challenge. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Modeling class inclusion strategies": Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by Hoben Thomas (Developmental Psychology, 1995[Mar], Vol 31[2], 170–279). On page 174, there were errors in Table 3; a corrected version of the table is provided. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in PA, Vol 82:24623.) B. Hodkin (see record 1988-01105-001) proposed a model for estimating the proportions of 3 possible solution strategies used by children in their responses to class inclusion items: guessing, subclass comparison, and inclusion logic. The model considers guessing, which if not modeled would result in estimates of young children's class inclusion understanding that would be seriously inflated as she demonstrated. However, the model assumes children are consistent in their task strategy. Hodkin's data suggest this assumption is incorrect; moreover, changes in task strategies that occur with development are not revealed by her model. A more general model, of which Hodkin's model is a special case, reveals that the youngest children's responses display mixed response strategies. The results illustrate the need to consider richer models that allow for assessing model parameter estimates and their variances are provided for both models. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Validating curriculum-based measurement: Essential concerns from a behavioral perspective.

Comments on an article by T. F. Derr-Minneci and E. S. Shapiro (see record 1993-07458-001) on behavioral validation of a curriculum-based measurement in reading. It is argued that Derr-Minneci and Shapiro misconstrue the concept of accuracy, which nevertheless is a questionable technical adequacy metric for curriculum-based measurement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Traditional versus "new therapies."

Comments on S. A. Appelbaum's article (see record 1983-13146-001) which discussed new "human potential" therapies. The current author opines that while it is gratifying that Appelbaum (September 1982) could see how psychoanalytic therapy could benefit from some of the criticisms offered by the "new therapies," the assumption in the article that traditional equals psychoanalytic is a disservice to all those nonpsychoanalytic therapies that have been around for many years. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comment on Zajonc.

Comments that the article by R. B. Zajonc (see record 1987-02628-001) using the confluence model to establish a connection between birth order and Scholastic Aptitude Test scores, is interesting and provides valuable suggestions for future research, but that there are errors of omission and assumption. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

PCR bias toward the wild-type k-ras and p53 sequences: implications for PCR detection of mutations and cancer diagnosis

PCR-based cancer diagnosis requires detection of rare mutations in k-ras, p53 or other genes. The assumption has been that mutant and wild-type sequences amplify with near equal efficiency, so that they are eventually present in proportions representative of the starting material. Work on factor IX suggests that this assumption is invalid for one case of near-sequence identity. To test the generality of this phenomenon and its relevance to cancer diagnosis, primers distant from point mutations in p53 and k-ras were used to amplify wild-type and mutant sequences from these genes. A substantial bias against PCR amplification of mutants was observed for two regions of the p53 gene and one region of k-ras. For k-ras and p53, bias was observed when the wild-type and mutant sequences were amplified separately or when mixed in equal proportions before PCR. Bias was present with proofreading and non-proofreading polymerases. Mutant and wild-type segments of the factor V, cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator and prothrombin genes were amplified and did not exhibit PCR bias. Therefore, the assumption of equal PCR efficiency for point mutant and wild-type sequences is invalid in several systems. Quantitative or diagnostic PCR will require validation for each locus, and enrichment strategies may be needed to optimize detection of mutants.     

Reaction to Cummings on addiction.

Argues that there is an assumption in N. A. Cummings's (see record 1980-08234-001) article that is unfortunate for psychologists who work with addiction and for their patients. Cummings devotes only a short paragraph to Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and speaks in a way that dismisses AA as not worthy of serious consideration in the treatment of addictions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recognition-failure constraints and the average maximum.

The Tulving-Wiseman function of recognition failure of recallable words is defined by the relation between the conditional probability of recognition given recall, P(Rn/Rc), and the probability of recognition, P(Rn). D. L. Hintzman (see record 1993-16342-001) proposed a distinction between algebraic maximum and average maximum values of P(Rn/Rc) to support his earlier claims (Hintzman, 1992) that the Tulving-Wiseman function is a mathematical artifact. This article shows that the distinction depends on a crucial assumption of Hintzman's argument that is unjustified on both empirical and rational grounds. Under a more reasonable assumption, there is no difference between the 2 maxima, so that the reality of the Tulving-Wiseman function remains unchanged. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A systems perspective and families of handicapped children.

Suggests that the R. B. Hampson et al (see record 1989-19420-001) article that explores the adaptive functioning of families with retarded children challenges the assumption that dysfunction is to be expected in these families and that emotional distress in these families signals pathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A relational approach to group therapy for women with bulimia nervosa: moving from understanding to action

This article explains how the psychology of women can inform group treatment by translating relational theory (RT) into practice within a short-term outpatient bulimia group. First, the article provides a brief overview of a relational understanding of women's psychological development, the etiology and maintenance of bulimia nervosa, and group psychotherapy. Then, clinical vignettes illustrate the application of RT in practice through discussion of four main healing factors at work in the different stages of the group. Through promoting validation, self-empathy, mutuality, and empowerment, the leader helps group members identify and change relational patterns that have kept them connected with food and disconnected from themselves and others. The goal of treatment is to help members move toward mutually empathic and empowering relationships inside and outside the group.     

Comment on "The Needless Assumption of Normality in Pearson's r".

Comment on article by M. D. Nefzger and J. Drasgow (see record 1959-02530-001), in which they emphasized the fact that the computation of r does not require an assumption of normality in the marginal distributions. They have, however, failed to take the equally desirable next step of pointing out that linearity also need not be assumed in the computation of r. The next term to be denned is "assumption." The implication apparently is that if you use a linear prediction equation you assume it to be the true relation in the sense just defined. I think this implication is unnecessary and that considerable confusion can be avoided by not making it. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Canadian psychologists for social responsibility.

The report in Canadian Psychology from "Canadian Psychologists for Social Responsibility" (P. R. Johnson, October 1984, pp. 336-337; see record 2007-03848-001) requires comment. First, we are amazed at the arrogance of the assumption that one political position is socially responsible, and all others presumably are irresponsible. Aside from that, the annual report of the section in effect says that evidence is unnecessary as long as in our heart we know we're right. Furthermore, the position attacked in the report is a straw man. Who has denied "that people are afraid of a nuclear holocaust"? Rather than attacking a claim that CPSR's critics have not made, its spokesman could try to deal seriously with the response made to another article emanating from this new section (O. Johnson, 1983). If the denigration of the need for objective evidence, and the ignoring of basic distinctions, are characteristic of CPSR's approach, there seems to be no difference between them and any other political group. In that case, the question naturally arises: Why should this political group constitute a section of CPA? (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Can social behavior be influenced by events that we are unaware of?

Responds to the comments of K. A. Markus (see record 199810886-007), T. D. Nelson (see record 199810886-008), and M. C. Green et al (see record 199810886-008) referring to D. Kipnis's (see record 199707781-001) article analyzing social psychology's assumption that psychological states can explain social behavior. In the present reply, Kipnis addresses the arguments contained in the 3 aforementioned comments, and concludes with the assumption that the content of consciousness is explained by people's interactions with events in their world, and, further, that the understanding of social behavior will progress when theory and empirical research are extended to include societal events. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comment on social desirability.

Comments on R. Hogan and R. A. Nicholson's (see record 1989-00097-001) article on construct validation in personality measurement and argues that social desirability (SD) is not simply an early theory of item response. SD explains item endorsement in terms of social normative processes and accounts for the lack of differential validity often observed among personality scales. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mixed group validation: A method for determining the validity of diagnostic signs without using criterion groups.

To determine whether a sign x distinguishes between X-type and Y-type individuals (Y = not-X), it is necessary to obtain estimates of p(x/X), the probability an X-type shows sign x, and p(x/Y). The traditional method for determining these probabilities, criterion-group validation, involves observing the incidence of x in 1 group consisting entirely of X-types and in a 2nd group consisting entirely of Y-types. Here, equations are developed for obtaining these probabilities by observing the incidence of x in any 2 groups having different, known base rates of X-types. The validation procedure making use of these equations is termed mixed-group validation, and it is pointed out that criterion-group validation is a special (limiting) case of mixed-group validation. Advantages of mixed-group validation are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)