New model for shrinkage compensation in selective laser sintering

This paper presents a new model for shrinkage and a new approach for shrinkage compensation to enhance the accuracy of parts produced by selective laser sintering (SLS)–a solid freeform fabrication process. The present prevailing approach as proposed by machine manufacturers is simple but not accurate. A new shrinkage model which accounts for part geometry as well as beam offset is proposed in this work. A new compensation scheme which accounts for nonlinear shrinkage is proposed, implemented and validated. The proposed compensation scheme compensates for shrinkage at every layer and at every hatch length, unlike a uniform compensation scheme applied to entire part. A new algorithm which accounts for this is developed and implemented. Experiments carried out with the new shrinkage model as well as with the new compensation scheme have shown significant improvement in the accuracy of the parts produced which establishes the effectiveness of the proposed methodology.     

高分子材料选择性激光烧结中的Z轴“盈余”

Z轴"盈余"是选择性激光烧结(SLS)成形中广泛存在并影响成形件精度的问题。文中分析了Z轴"盈余"的形成原因,并通过尼龙12对SLS成形过程中影响Z轴"盈余"的因素进行了实验研究。结果表明,Z轴"盈余"是由于烧结第一层粉末材料时,激光烧结深度大于切片厚度而产生的,表现在烧结件在Z方向上尺寸变大;提高预热温度和激光能量密度及降低切片厚度都会增大Z轴"盈余"。研究结果对控制高分子SLS成形过程中的Z轴"盈余",提高SLS成形件精度具有重要的参考价值。     

A coupled discrete element-finite difference model of selective laser sintering

Selective laser sintering (SLS) is an additive manufacturing technology whereby one can 3D print parts out of a powdered material. However, in order to produce defect free parts of sufficient strength, the process parameters (laser power, scan speed, powder layer thickness, etc.) must be carefully optimized depending on material, part geometry, and desired final part characteristics. Computational methods are very useful in the quick optimization of such parameters without the need to run numerous costly experiments. Most published models of this process involve continuum-based techniques, which require the homogenization of the powder bed and thus do not capture the stochastic nature of this process. Thus, the aim of this research is to produce a reduced order computational model of the SLS process which combines the essential physics with fast computation times. In this work the authors propose a coupled discrete element-finite difference model of this process. The powder particles are modeled as discrete, thermally and mechanically interacting spheres. The solid, underneath substrate is modeled via the finite difference method. The model is validated against experimental results in the literature and three-dimensional simulations are presented.     

Study on the reinforcement of nanosilica on the selective laser sintered nylon–12 parts

使用纳米二氧化硅增强尼龙12选择性激光烧结(SLS)成形件, 通过溶剂沉淀法制备SLS用纳米二氧化硅/尼龙12复合粉末材料, 研究了纳米二氧化硅对SLS成形件力学性能的影响. 结果表明: 纳米二氧化硅以纳米尺寸均匀分散在尼龙12基体中: 复合粉末的粒径比纯尼龙12的粉末小, 因而有利于提高烧结速率及成形件精度; 复合粉末比尼龙12的粉末具有更高的热稳定性; 复合粉末烧结件的拉伸强度、拉伸模量以及冲击强度比纯尼龙12烧结件分别提高了约20.9%、39.4%和9.5%, 说明纳米二氧化硅对尼龙12 SLS成形件的增强效果显著.     

Laser micro sintering: A new method to generate metal and ceramic parts of high resolution with sub-micrometer powder

Laser micro sintering (LMS) was developed by the research group at University of Applied Sciences Mittweida and the associated Laserinstitut Mittelsachsen e.V. as the result of research started in 2001 with a project on the possibility of generating parts by selective laser sintering (SLS) with improved resolution. For the successful generation of solid bodies from various metal powders the technology uses essentially sub-micrometer powders, a cylindrical coating blade and a q-switched solid state laser. The resolution and the surface roughness are by more than one order of magnitude better than those achieved by previous selective laser sinter technologies. Presently the technology shows advancements in selective laser sintering of highly resolved specimens of densely sintered Al₂O₃ and SiC ceramics too.

This paper reports the process mechanism of LMS and its principal differences compared to other SLS methods. A variety of laser micro sintered parts from different metals and the newest results in laser micro sintering of ceramic parts are presented. Material specific behaviour in laser micro sintering is discussed. Also the ability of the method will be shown to generate parts of layer wise different materials (laminate sintering) in one sintering machine.     

陶瓷材料增材制造技术研究进展

增材制造技术是20世纪90年代出现的,以高能束为基础通过逐层叠加材料得到终产品的快速成形技术。以选择性激光烧结/熔融为主线,综述了陶瓷材料增材制造技术的发展历程,概述了间接法和直接法的原理、特点以及其局限性,指出要解决陶瓷制品增材制造存在的问题,必须加强相关理论研究,优化粉末质量和后处理工艺,以及探索合适的工艺参数。     

激光增材制造用SiC粉末制备及成形工艺探索

为制备高强度复杂形状SiC陶瓷零件,以酚醛树脂(PF)为粘接剂,分别采用机械混合法(SPM)和搅拌蒸发法(SPC)制备两种SiC复合粉末,并对两种粉末进行了SEM电镜扫描、SLS成形、碳化和渗硅反应烧结处理.研究表明,在激光功率10 W,分层厚度0.1 mm,扫描速2 000 mm/s,扫描间距0.2 mm时,SLS坯体密度大(1.259 g/cm3),生产效率高.利用SPC粉末制得的SLS坯体内部孔隙更多,碳化和渗硅烧结后坯体密度明显增加.采用SPC粉末所制零件最终力学性能更好,更适于生产.在最优工艺条件下,制备了复杂形状的高性能SiC零件.     

An efficient scanning algorithm for improving accuracy based on minimising part warping in selected laser sintering process

In the selective laser sintering (SLS) method, layers of powder are scanned by a laser beam and sintered. The thermal gradients created by laser heating and the subsequent cooling of the sintered sections results in thermal stresses and part warping in the final part. Thermal gradients are dependent on the scanning algorithm, in particular, the scan vector length. In this work, an efficient scanning algorithm for the SLS process is presented with the aim to minimise the part warping in the final part due to thermally induced residual stresses, while maintaining the production time at a minimum. The proposed algorithm is implemented in a finite element simulation and scanning parameters including the number of offsets and scanning length are optimised at constant laser parameters and chamber conditions. The FE model is verified by testing a few samples on SLS machine and comparing the parts made by the proposed algorithm with those made using conventional scan algorithm is the same as parallel-line scan algorithm. It is shown that part warping in the parts made by the proposed algorithm is reduced by up to 35% while the production time, part accuracy and surface properties are improved.     

A review on selective laser sintering/melting (SLS/SLM) of aluminium alloy powders: Processing,microstructure, and properties

Manufacturing businesses aiming to deliver their new customised products more quickly and gain more consumer markets for their products will increasingly employ selective laser sintering/melting (SLS/SLM) for fabricating high quality, low cost, repeatable, and reliable aluminium alloy powdered parts for automotive, aerospace, and aircraft applications. However, aluminium powder is known to be uniquely bedevilled with the tenacious surface oxide film which is difficult to avoid during SLS/SLM processing. The tenacity of the surface oxide film inhibits metallurgical bonding across the layers during SLS/SLM processing and this consequently leads to initiation of spheroidisation by Marangoni convection. Due to the paucity of publications on SLS/SLM processing of aluminium alloy powders, we review the current state of research and progress from different perspectives of the SLS/SLM, powder metallurgy (P/M) sintering, and pulsed electric current sintering (PECS) of ferrous, non-ferrous alloys, and composite powders as well as laser welding of aluminium alloys in order to provide a basis for follow-on-research that leads to the development of high productivity, SLS/SLM processing of aluminium alloy powders. Moreover, both P/M sintering and PECS of aluminium alloys are evaluated and related to the SLS process with a view to gaining useful insights especially in the aspects of liquid phase sintering (LPS) of aluminium alloys; application of LPS to SLS process; alloying effect in disrupting the surface oxide film of aluminium alloys; and designing of aluminium alloy suitable for the SLS/SLM process. Thereafter, SLS/SLM parameters, powder properties, and different types of lasers with their effects on the processing and densification of aluminium alloys are considered. The microstructure and metallurgical defects associated with SLS/SLM processed parts are also elucidated by highlighting the mechanism of their formation, the main influencing factors, and the remedial measures. Mechanical properties such as hardness, tensile, and fatigue strength of SLS/SLM processed parts are reported. The final part of this paper summarises findings from this review and outlines the trend for future research in the SLS/SLM processing of aluminium alloy powders.     

基于SLS/CIP工艺SiC陶瓷的制备及其性能

以喷雾干燥的SiC-Al_2O_3-Y_2O_3造粒粉为原料,使用机械混合法得到复合粉体,通过激光选区烧结/冷等静压技术并结合液相烧结工艺制备出SiC陶瓷,对SiC陶瓷的物相组成、显微结构、抗弯强度及密度进行表征。结果表明:喷雾造粒粉平均粒径为39.43μm,球形度较高,流动性良好,适用于SLS成型;SLS成型最优参数为激光功率7W、扫描间距0.15mm、扫描速率2200mm/s、单层层厚0.15mm且CIP压力为80MPa时, SiC陶瓷素坯的性能最佳,抗弯强度为(2.23±0.10)MPa,密度为(1.31±0.05)g/cm^3;在1950℃下烧结2h后,样品发生了致密化,SiC陶瓷密度为(1.95±0.17)g/cm^3,相对密度为(60.81±5.31)%,抗弯强度为(55.43±4.04)MPa。     

Influence of processing parameters of selective laser melting on high‐cycle and very‐high‐cycle fatigue behaviour of Ti‐6Al‐4V

Orthogonal experiment design together with the analysis of variance was used to examine the processing parameters (laser power, scan speed, layer thickness and hatch spacing) of selective laser melting (SLM) for superior properties of SLM parts, in which nine groups of specimens of Ti‐6Al‐4V were fabricated. The results clarify that the influence sequence of individual parameter on the porosity is laser power > hatch spacing > layer thickness > scan speed. Ultrasonic fatigue tests (20 kHz) were conducted for the SLMed specimens in high‐cycle fatigue (HCF) and very‐high‐cycle fatigue (VHCF) regimes. The S‐N data show that the fatigue strength is greatly affected by the porosity: the group with the smallest porosity percentage having the highest fatigue strength in HCF and VHCF regimes. Then, the tests on the validation group were performed to verify the optimal combination of SLM processing parameters. Moreover, the observations by scanning electron microscopy revealed that fatigue cracks initiate at lack‐of‐fusion defects in the cases of surface and internal crack initiation.     

数值模拟在氧化铝陶瓷SLS/CIP过程中的应用

采用选择性激光烧结(SLS)和冷等静压(CIP)复合工艺制造高密度形状复杂的氧化铝零件,经高温烧结,氧化铝零件密度高达94.5%.应用修正的Cam-Clay模型模拟了零件的CIP过程,同时通过模拟和实验研究其在CIP过程中的致密化、变形及收缩规律.研究表明,在激光扫描平面内模拟与实验的尺寸相对误差不超过2.26%,证明该模拟可为氧化铝SLS零件的尺寸设计和CIP过程提供有利指导.     

The microstructure evolution of nanohydroxapatite powder sintered for bone tissue engineering

Nanotechnology has been widely used to overcome the brittleness of coarse ceramics. Laser sintering is an effective approach for the preparation of nanoceramics due to the laser properties such as high energy density and rapid heating. In this study, the nanohydroxypatite (HAP) was used to prepare for artificial bone scaffold using a home-made selective laser sintering (SLS) system. The microstructure and the properties of the sintered nanoHAP are tested with scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. We found that the shape of nanoHAP particle changes from long needle-like to spherical or ellipsoidal after sintering, and the HAP particles grow up until they merge together with the increasing temperature. The tendency of preferred orientation reduces and the degree of crystallinity increases with the growth of nanoHAP. HAP dehydroxylation occurs during sintering. HAP decomposes to tetracalcium phosphate and β-calcium phosphate when the sintering temperature is over 1354°C (the laser power is 8.75?W). Sintered nanoHAP maintains a high degree of crystalline and nanometre scale when the laser power is 7.50?W, spot radius 2?mm, sintering time 4?s and thickness of the layer is 0.2?mm. This study presented the optimised technology parameters for the preparation of nanoceramics with a novel SLS system and demonstrated that the nanoceramics with nanosize scale can be obtained by this system.     

3D printing by selective laser sintering of polypropylene feed channel spacers for spiral wound membrane modules for the water industry

Feed spacers are net-like structures present in spiral wound membrane modules (SWM) used for treatment of water and wastewater. Feed spacers require appropriate stiffness to support the membrane sheets without damaging and puncturing the membrane surfaces. They also need to be flexible enough to be rolled up around the central permeate tube forming the SWM. Polypropylene (PP) is the commercially used material for feed spacers due to its flexibility and excellent chemical resistance properties. In this paper, selective laser sintering (SLS) is used to investigate the printability of net-typed structures using PP materials to represent feed spacers. SLS processing parameters such as layer thickness, part bed temperature, energy density and scan pattern were studied and net-typed PP spacers were successfully fabricated. However, an analysis on tensile test and dimensional accuracy shows that Young’s modulus of the PP material tends to be correlated to the accuracy of the dimensions of the net-typed spacer prototypes.     

Structure and properties of nano-hydroxypatite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering with a selective laser sintering system

In this study, nano-hydroxypatite (n-HAP) bone scaffolds are prepared by a homemade selective laser sintering (SLS) system based on rapid prototyping (RP) technology. The SLS system consists of a precise three-axis motion platform and a laser with its optical focusing device. The implementation of arbitrary complex movements based on the non-uniform rational B-Spline (NURBS) theory is realized in this system. The effects of the sintering processing parameters on the microstructure of n-HAP are tested with x-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The particles of n-HAP grow gradually and tend to become spherical-like from the initial needle-like shape, but still maintain a nanoscale structure at scanning speeds between 200 and 300 mm min(-1) when the laser power is 50 W, the light spot diameter 4 mm, and the layer thickness 0.3 mm. In addition, these changes do not result in decomposition of the n-HAP during the sintering process. The results suggest that the newly developed n-HAP scaffolds have the potential to serve as an excellent substrate in bone tissue engineering.     

Morphology and Mechanical Properties of PS/Al2O3 Nanocomposites Based on Selective Laser Sintering

1. IntroductionSelective laser sintering (SLS) is an advanced solidpowder freedom fabrication technology[1~4]. The ma-terials can be metals, ceramics, polymer or theirmixtures[5~10]. It can be adopted to prepare nano-composites to its best advantage for its process featureswith high density of the sintered specimens. It can beachieved by sintering layer by layer and high temper-ature grads engendered instantaneously by laser for itsown working mechanosm[11~15]. It is creative and im-portant …     

激光选区烧结高分子纳米复合材料研究进展

激光选区烧结(SLS)是一种增材制造技术,它利用激光逐层烧结粉末并叠加的原理来成形复杂制件,具有材料广泛,无需支撑以及成形精度高等优点。然而,其成形过程中无外力驱动的特点,造成制件中不可避免地存在一定孔隙,使制件性能通常低于传统模塑件。因此,国内外学者提出利用各种纳米填料来增强SLS制件的性能,并取得了良好的效果,已成为本领域研究热点。文中重点介绍了各种用于SLS技术的高分子纳米复合材料,对其研究现状进行综述,并提出今后该领域的发展方向。     

Selective laser sintering of porous tissue engineering scaffolds from poly(<Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">l</Emphasis>-lactide)/carbonated hydroxyapatite nanocomposite microspheres

This study focuses on the use of bio-nanocomposite microspheres, consisting of carbonated hydroxyapatite (CHAp) nanospheres within a poly(L: -lactide) (PLLA) matrix, to produce tissue engineering (TE) scaffolds using a modified selective laser sintering (SLS) machine. PLLA microspheres and PLLA/CHAp nanocomposite microspheres were prepared by emulsion techniques. The resultant microspheres had a size range of 5-30 mum, suitable for the SLS process. Microstructural analyses revealed that the CHAp nanospheres were embedded throughout the PLLA microsphere, forming a nanocomposite structure. A custom-made miniature sintering platform was installed in a commercial Sinterstation((R)) 2000 SLS machine. This platform allowed the use of small quantities of biomaterials for TE scaffold production. The effects of laser power; scan spacing and part bed temperature were investigated and optimized. Finally, porous scaffolds were successfully fabricated from the PLLA microspheres and PLLA/CHAp nanocomposite microspheres. In particular, the PLLA/CHAp nanocomposite microspheres appeared to be promising for porous bone TE scaffold production using the SLS technique.     

Evaluation of selective laser sintering processes by optical coherence tomography

Selective laser sintering (SLS) enables the fast, flexible and cost-efficient production of parts directly from 3D CAD data. Unlike more established machine tools, there is a marked lack of process monitoring and feedback control of key process variables. In-situ analysis techniques permit the emergence of repair techniques, in-process optimization of production parameters, and will also serve to save time and material. In this study, optical coherence tomography (OCT) is used for the first time to evaluate components produced by SLS. Using a Polyamide-PA2200, surface defects are analyzed and the limiting factors associated with the measurement technique are quantified. OCT is shown to be a useful technique for evaluating surface irregularities alongside sub-surface defects that have resulted from poor sintering or non-homogeneous powder spreading. We demonstrate detection and quantification of surface defects such as cracks, pores and voids on a ~ 30 μm scale. Furthermore, we show that this technique can resolve ‘built-in’ fine features within a 200 to 400 μm depth below the surface, covering typical layer thicknesses used by this process. This capability paves the way for real-time monitoring of the SLS process for assurance, or even dynamic correction of defects during the build.     

Selective Laser Sintering of Alumina Using Aluminum Binder

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) process has been used to make shapes from Al₂0₃ using Al as binder. SLS is a rapid manufacturing process that uses data from Solid Modeling systems to guide a laser beam and rapidly form 3-D shapes from powder without any part specific tooling. The aluminum melts under the laser and bonds the alumina particles. Some of the aluminum reacts with the ambient (air) to form alumina. The residual aluminum is oxidized in a subsequent he at-treatment step. The effect of parameters in the SLS step and heat-treating step on the mechanical properties and density of the part is examined. Linear expansion of the parts with oxidation heat-treatment is also examined.