Phenolic compounds in a Spanish red wine aged in barrels made of Spanish,French and American oak wood

A red Rioja wine was aged in barrels made of Spanish oak wood for 21 months. The evolutions of colour percentage intensity, families of phenolic compounds and low molecular weight phenolic compounds were studied in these wines and compared with those of the same wine aged in barrels made of French and American oak. The analysis of chromatic parameters and total anthocyanins indicates that the wines aged in Spanish and French oak wood barrels have similar chromatic characteristics, but are significantly different to those of wines aged in barrels made of American oak wood, indicating a different degree of modification of the colour. The ageing process also had an important influence on the low molecular weight polyphenols composition of wine. The evolution of these components allowed the production of wines with different characteristics, in relation to the type of wood used in barrel making process. On the other hand, Spanish oak wood can be considered suitable for barrel production for quality wines, since a wine aged in barrels made of Spanish oak wood showed similar and intermediate characteristics to those of the same wine aged in French and American oak woods.     

Oak barrel maturation vs. micro-oxygenation: Effect on the formation of anthocyanin-derived pigments and wine colour

The objective of this study was to check whether micro-oxygenation (MO) could mimic oak barrel ageing as regard the effect on wine colour. A red wine was submitted to micro-oxygenation for three months while another lot from the same wine was matured in oak barrels for three or six months. After these times, oak-matured and micro-oxygenated wines were bottled and analyzed six months later. The chromatic characteristics of these wines were also compared with those of a control wine that remained in a stainless steel tank all the time. Anthocyanins and anthocyanin-derived compounds were studied by LC–ESI-MS. Monomeric anthocyanins and other compounds including direct anthocyanin–flavanol adducts, ethyl-linked anthocyanin–flavanol compounds, and pyranoanthocyanins were detected. The application of MO for three months produced wines with a lower concentration of monomeric anthocyanins and a higher concentration of vitisin-related pigments than the control wine, the oak mature wines showing similar results than MO wines when aged for the same period of time. Differences were also observed in the chromatic characteristics, the micro-oxygenated and the oak matured wines showing a higher colour intensity than control wine. However, after six months in bottle differences were found between the micro-oxygenated wines and oak matured wines, the latter showing a more stable colour, probably due to the beneficial effects of compounds extracted from the wood (e.g. ellagitannins or wood aldehydes).     

Evolution of red wine anthocyanins during malolactic fermentation,postfermentative treatments and ageing with lees

A comparative study was conducted on nine batches of wine, from the same initial wine, subjected to malolactic fermentation and ageing in barrels, under different technological conditions: Malolactic fermentation in barrel or in tank, with or without wine clarification, ageing with or without lees and stirring or no stirring of the lees. Samples were taken of the initial wine, of the wine at the end of malolactic fermentation, of the wines after clarifying treatments, and after 3, 6, 9, 12 and 14 months of ageing in the barrel, making a total of 48 wines. As a result of the anthocyanin analysis of all the wines studied, a total of 21 different anthocyanin compounds were detected, which can be classified into four groups: simple glucosides, acetyl glucosides, cinnamoyl glucosides and pyroanthocyanins. During MLF, it was shown that the effect of the container used seems to be more important than the metabolic activity of the bacteria responsible for the process. From application of the LSD test, significant differences were found in the concentrations of all the anthocyanin compounds identified due to ageing time and significant differences were also revealed for most anthocyanin compounds in relation to the manufacturing method, especially the presence or absence of lees.     

Statistical differentiation of wines of different geographic origin and aged in barrel according to some volatile components and ethylphenols

The purpose of this paper was to study the effect of wine composition and geographical origin on the accumulation of volatile compounds in barrel-aged wines. Therefore, 267 wines belonging to different origin appellations were analysed. In order to analyse the data, a multivariate statistical technique was applied, that can be quite useful in creating an overall view of the problem in which multiple variables are analysed. Statistical analysis gave four significant factors, accounting for 84.12% of the variance. These factors summarise the information of a group of variables closely correlated to each other. Factor 1 grouped together oak lactones and eugenol, so it was associated with oak barrel type and with toasting of barrels. Factor 2 was associated with ethylphenols, related to wine quality diminution. Factor 3 grouped together guaiacol, furfural, and 5-methylfurfural, and was thus associated with wood thermal degradation; factor 4 was associated with the cis/trans ratio, related to oak origin. Whereas geographical origin of wines affected the accumulation of volatile compounds, the cis/trans ratio was only affected by oak barrel type. Among the tested parameters, alcoholic degree was the enological parameter that had the greatest effect on the accumulation of volatile compounds in wines. Oak lactones were the compounds that were present in all wines, so they could be used as oak ageing indicators.     

Evolution of esters in aged Chardonnay wines obtained with different vinification methods

BACKGROUND: During wine ageing on lees yeast lysis takes place and some enzymes from the yeast cells, such as esterases, may be released. These enzymes might determine ester synthesis and could be also involved in their breakdown. In this study, the evolution of esters in Chardonnay wine fermented in stainless steel tanks and aged in bottles (conventional vinification) was compared with the evolution of esters in the same wine fermented and aged in barrel on lees. In this way, it was hoped to determine the influence of distinct methods of vinification on the evolution of esters in Chardonnay wine. RESULTS: The concentration of acetate esters of higher alcohols decreased in all the wines independently of the vinification method. However, the ethyl esters of fatty acids decreased in wine aged in barrel and increased in wine aged in bottle, so it would seem that these compounds interact with the lees present in the barrels and/or with the wood of the barrel. The ethyl esters of organic acids increased during ageing both in barrel and bottle. CONCLUSION: The ageing of Chardonnay wine in barrel on lees did not favour the formation of esters compared to the same wine aged in bottle. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

Phenolic composition,colour, antioxidant activity and mineral profile of Cabernet Sauvignon wines

Phenolic compounds and mineral content constitute important quality parameters of wines. It is probably during ageing, that the greatest number of polymerisation and condensation reactions occurs, notably modifying the composition of the wine. The aim of this study was to characterise Cabernet Sauvignon wines of different vintages from two regions in Santa Catarina State, Brazil. It was not possible to clearly observe an evolution of the phenolic content and colour parameters in the different vintages of the wines. The ABTS method gave higher antioxidant value than DPPH, which showed higher correlation with total polyphenols. Principal components analysis showed differences between the wines, especially in relation to vintage. Also, the study allowed a clear separation of wines in relation to place of vineyards in terms of mineral composition.     

Antioxidant potential of single-variety red wines aged in the barrel and in the bottle

Wine constitutes a dynamic system in continuous evolution, in which numerous reactions involving polymerization and condensation take place between its phenolic compounds during the ageing process, which undoubtedly affect its structure and, very probably, its antioxidant effect. This study set out to evaluate the effect of ageing on the antioxidant potential of wine. A group of 162 wines were studied, of varying ages, which had undergone different ageing processes, both in the barrel and in the bottle, and which were prepared from different grape varieties and vintages. Total antioxidant capacity (ABTS, DPPH, DMPD, ORAC and FRAP), scavenger activity (HRSA and SRSA) and the biomarkers of oxidative stress (DNA-damage and ABAP-LP) were all analysed. The assay methods showed different behaviours for the same wines, thus the young wines presented higher indices for ABTS, DPPH and DMPD, whereas those that were aged showed higher indices for ABAP-LP and ORAC. Finally, the antioxidant potential of the wines in the study appeared not to be influenced by other factors, such as microoxygenation or grape variety.     

Effect of the winemaking technique on phenolic composition and chromatic characteristics in young red wines

The effect of six winemaking techniques (traditional, prefermentative maceration, delestage, Ganimede fermentation system, enzymes and tannins addition, or oak chip addition during alcoholic fermentation) on phenolic composition and chromatic characteristics of young red wines, elaborated from Mencía grapes grown in Galicia (northwestern Spain), was studied. The evolution of phenolic compounds from grapes to bottling and its influence on CIELab parameters were investigated. After bottling, 26 phenolic compounds were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and their influence on colour stability for ageing was evaluated. Principal component analysis allowed the differentiation of the winemaking techniques studied on the base of phenolic composition, which is correlated with polymerization grade of anthocyanins. This paper can contribute to improve the knowledge about the importance of selecting the winemaking technique to elaborate high-quality young red wines and to evaluate their ability for ageing. So, the addition of enzymes and tannins seems to be the most adequate winemaking technique to elaborate red wines for ageing as it results in the formation of major number of pigmented polymers that are stable over time. Nevertheless, the prefermentative maceration, Ganimede autowinemaker and the addition of oak chips can be used for the elaboration of young red wines.     

Using near infrared spectroscopy to determine haloanisoles and halophenols in barrel aged red wines

NIR spectroscopy has been applied to determine haloanisoles and halophenols responsible for musty taint defect in barrel aged red wines. Six hundred wines with different ageing time from four different geographic zones were evaluated. Spectra of samples obtained by NIR were co-related with SBSE–GC–MS data using partial least squares (PLS) regression. Favourable calibration results were obtained (R² > 0.77) for all the compounds studied. Residual predictive deviation (RPD) values over 1.5 in all the compounds were obtained for aged-12 and aged-18 samples as well as for geographical zones 2, 3 and 4, thus indicating the suitability of determining halophenols and haloanisoles with this technique. In conclusion, near infrared spectroscopy can be used as a rapid tool to determine haloanisoles and halophenols in barrel aged red wines, being more effective in the case of the most expensive wines (aged-12 and aged-18 wines).     

Anthocyanin pattern of Tempranillo wines during ageing in oak barrels and storage in stainless-steel tanks

The anthocyanin fingerprint of Tempranillo wines made with grapes from two different vineyards of Rioja Alta has been studied by high-performance liquid chroatography during their ageing in oak barrels and their storage in stainless-steel tanks. The data were submitted to multifactorial analysis of variance, taking into account several factors: vineyard, age of wines, type of wine (free run wine and a coupage of free run wine and press wine), and type of container (oak barrels or stainless-steel tanks). The results indicate that both the length of ageing or storage and the vineyard where the grapes were grown affect the anthocyanin fingerprint of wines. The effect of the other two factors (type of wine and type of container) on the anthocyanin fingerprint of wines was quite low, despite the differences observed in several spectrophotometric parameters related to colour and phenolics.     

Phenolic compounds and colour stability of Vinhão wines: Influence of wine-making protocol and fining agents

The purpose of this work is to study the evolution, over three selected harvests, of phenolic compounds and colour stability of red wines produced in the north of Portugal by means of two wine-making processes (conventional maceration/fermentation and fermentation after initial carbonic maceration), with and without the use of four different fining agents (polyvinylpolypyrrolidine, gelatine, egg albumin, and casein). In general, it was observed that wines obtained by conventional maceration/fermentation (PO) present the highest colour intensity and polyphenolic content (total and monomeric anthocyanins, flavan-3-ol monomers and polymers), and the lowest orange–red hue, immediately following vinification. Nevertheless, carbonic maceration (CM) afforded wines with most stability in colour density, for 26 months’ storage. Different evolutions of anthocyanins and of flavan-3-ol monomers (catechins) and polymers (procyanidins) in PO and CM protocols during storage were observed. Decrease of anthocyanins and flavan-3-ol dimmers were, in general, more remarkable in PO wines. Monomers and trimers underwent a rise, especially in CM wines. Wines treated with fining agents tended to have somewhat lower anthocyanins levels, and especially in the case of PVPP, less intense colouration than untreated wines. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that catechins and some procyanidins are mainly responsible for the separation and evolution of wines during storage according polyphenolic composition. Partial least squares (PLS) regression models confirm that colour density in wines from PO and CM protocols explains a high proportion of the variance in hue, chemical age, IFC and anthocyanins and a prediction model has been built.     

Copigmentation,colour and antioxidant activity of single-cultivar red wines

A hundred and thirty-six single-cultivar red wines of different vintages were collected from several wineries in the Canary Islands in order to study the magnitude of the copigmentation phenomenon and the antioxidant activity. The contribution of free anthocyanins, copigmented anthocyanins and polymeric pigments to the colour of wine, as well as the total phenols, the antioxidant activity (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, DPPH method) and the chromatic characteristics of the wines were determined. The influence of ageing time and the climatic conditions on these parameters was also studied. The wines made with Merlot, Ruby Cabernet and Syrah cultivars showed the highest parameters of colour, and the largest contribution to the copigmented anthocyanins was from the Ruby Cabernet, Listán negro and Syrah cultivars. The copigmented anthocyanins and the free anthocyanins decrease with the age of the wine, and the antioxidant activity of the samples appears to be related to the total phenol content. An influence of the climatic conditions on colour parameters has been found. The correlation study between parameters suggests that the parameters b* and L* could be used as suitable indicators of evolution or oxidation stage of red wines.     

Discrimination of the aroma fraction of Sherry wines obtained by oxidative and biological ageing

Aroma compounds of fino, oloroso and amontillado Sherry wines, obtained by biological, oxidative and combined ageing, were analyzed. An analysis of variance was carried out for each compound, to classify the wines into different homogeneous groups. The compounds distinguishing the wines in the same way, and exceeding their perception thresholds, were subjected to discriminant analyses. This defined the groups of compounds more markedly influenced by the ageing, as well as their sensorial contribution to the flavour. As a consequence, the contents of several compounds present in the amontillado wines and their contribution to the odour profiles could be attributed to prevalence of their changes during the biological or oxidative ageing.     

Effects of composition,storage time,geographic origin and oak type on the accumulation of some volatile oak compounds and ethylphenols in wines

The aim of this work was to study the effect of different parameters on the accumulation of volatile oak compounds and ethylphenols in red barrel-aged wines. For this, 510 wines, from four different geographic zones and aged for various times in different oak barrel types were analysed. The results of the statistical analysis showed that the compounds were in four groups, accounting for 82.99% of the variance. The enological parameters did not present correlation with any of these four groups. The wines that remained longer in oak barrels presented, in general, higher concentrations of the studied compounds. Three of the four geographic zones were similar to each other. The oak barrel type affected the value of the ratio cis/trans, but it did not affect the accumulation of any of the volatile oak compounds or ethylphenols.     

Techniques for improving or replacing ageing on lees of oak aged red wines: The effects on polysaccharides and the phenolic composition

Alternative techniques to the ageing on lees are being looked for in order to guarantee the improvements provided by this technique but eliminating its disadvantages. The aim of this work was to study the effect of ageing on lees and other alternative techniques (addition of β-glucanase enzymes to the lees; use of different yeast commercial preparations with or without β-glucanase enzymes; use of non-toasted oak chips; and ageing on lees together with micro-oxygenation) on the phenolic compounds, colour, proteins, polysaccharides and sensorial characteristics of red wines during vinification and ageing in oak barrels for 6 months on two consecutive vintages.     

Astringency,bitterness and color changes in dry red wines before and during oak barrel aging: An updated phenolic perspective review

To understand effects of using oak barrels on the astringency, bitterness and color of dry red wines, phenolic reactions in wines before and after barrel aging are reviewed in this paper, which has been divided into three sections. The first section includes an introduction to chemical reactivities of grape-derived phenolic compounds, a summary of the phenolic reactions that occur in dry red wines before barrel aging, and a discussion of the effects of these reactions on wine astringency, bitterness and color. The second section introduces barrel types that determine the oak barrel constituents in wines (primarily oak aldehydes and ellagitannins) and presents reactions between the oak constituents and grape-derived phenolic compounds that may modulate wine astringency, bitterness and color. The final section illustrates the chemical differences between basic oxidation and over-oxidation in wines, discusses oxygen consumption kinetics in wines during barrel aging by comparing different oxygen consumption kinetics observed previously by others, and speculates on the possible preliminary phenolic reactions that occur in dry red wines during oak barrel aging that soften tannins and stabilize pigments via basic oxidation. Additionally, sulfur dioxide (SO₂) addition during barrel aging and suitability of adopting oak barrels for aging wines are briefly discussed.     

Aroma compounds and sensory characteristics of Arneis Terre Alfieri DOC wines: the concentration of polyfunctional thiols and their evolution in relation to different ageing conditions

Arneis is an Italian autochthonous white grape cultivar. This study involved investigating the chemicophysical, aromatic composition and sensory evaluation of Arneis wine in relation to different oenological practices during winemaking and ageing. For the first time, polyfunctional thiols related aromas were identified above their perception threshold in Arneis wine. Moreover, citrus, grapefruit and tropical fruit notes characterized this wine during the first month of ageing, thus suggesting a strong correlation between chemical and sensory results. The concentration of thiols decreased rapidly during the first month of ageing, together with the tropical fruit notes. In particular, the perception of the grapefruit note of the wine decreased in association with the 3-mercaptohexyl acetate content in both the barrel and stainless steel (ST) aged wines. Moreover, the ageing technique clearly affected wine composition and sensory profile; barrel aged wines were characterized both by vanilla and honey notes, and a weaker perception of thiols despite containing a similar concentration to ST aged wines. Within this study, the ability of glutathione to decrease the oxidation of volatile thiols in Arneis wine was confirmed, but under experimental conditions employed, the addition of reduced glutathione did not lead to any statistically significant differences in sensory results.     

发酵容器对赤霞珠干红葡萄酒中花色苷的影响

利用高效液相色谱-质谱(HPLC-MS)联用检测技术分析了法国旋转橡木桶和不锈钢发酵罐酿造的赤霞珠干红葡萄酒陈酿180d和360d后花色苷的种类、数量,并与CIELAB法测定的葡萄酒色泽比较,结果发现二甲花翠素类花色苷是赤霞珠干红葡萄酒的主体花色苷类型,其中二甲花翠素单葡萄糖苷和二甲花翠素乙酰化单葡萄糖苷作为特征峰,分别占其花色苷总量的50%和20%以上;发酵容器影响葡萄酒中花色苷的种类和含量;陈酿过程中酰化的花色苷均较其相应的糖苷下降幅度大;陈酿180d的葡萄酒红色色调的深浅主要由花色苷的含量高低决定,陈酿360d的葡萄酒红色色调深浅和花色苷的含量高低无关;橡木桶用于赤霞珠干红葡萄酒发酵能获得较不锈钢罐更浓的红色和黄色色调以及更深的总色度。为葡萄酒酿造工艺优化和产品质量监控提供了理论依据与快速准确的化学鉴定手段。     

Maintenance of Colour Composition of a Red Wine During Storage. Influence of Prefermentative Practices, Maceration Time and Storage

The effect of two different prefermentative treatments (the moment of SO₂addition and the use of fining agents), three different maceration times (4, 5 and 10 d), two different storage conditions and the length of storage on wine colour composition has been studied. The results show that the addition of SO₂at the moment of crushing, the use of the fining agent polyvinylpolypyrrolidone and long maceration times produced wines with a higher anthocyanin, ionised anthocyanins and polymeric compounds content, greater colour density, and an overall colour quality. Principal components analysis showed that the wines were mainly grouped according to their length of maceration and storage condition. After 12 mo of storage, wines elaborated with 10-d skin maceration were those with greatest colour quality.