The localized corrosion of resistant alloys in chloride solutions

A potentiostatic scratching technique has been used to study the breakdown potentials of stainless steel 304, Incoloy, Inconel 600, Monel 400 and Hastelloy C in chloride solution at pH 8 as a function of chloride activity, temperature and metal cold work. For the first four alloys breakdown occurs through pitting. For Hastelloy C there is no pitting process, and breakdown occurs by a transpassive reaction, probably involving oxidation of Mo and Cr in the film to soluble anions.     

The localized corrosion of resistant alloys in chloride solutions

A potentiostatic scratching technique has been used to study the breakdown potentials of stainless steel 304, Incoloy, Inconel 600, Monel 400 and Hastelloy C in chloride solution at pH 8 as a function of chloride activity, temperature and metal cold work. For the first four alloys break-down occurs through pitting. For Hastelloy C there is no pitting process, and breakdown occurs by a transpassive reaction, probably involving oxidation of Mo and Cr in the film to soluble anions.     

Corrosion of Fe-10Al-Cr alloys by coal char

Corrosion of iron-base alloys at 982°C (1800°F) by coal char is observed and the phase morphologies are discussed. No sulfidation was observed at 50 hr exposure. After 100 hr internal aluminum-rich sulfides were observed along with thick outer scales of iron oxide. The species causing the hightemperature-induced corrosion are probably sulfides and sulfates, present in most coal chars. Possible mechanisms for the corrosion are also discussed.Department of Materials Science and Mineral Engineering.     

Tensile Properties and Structure of Several Superalloys after Long- Term Exposure to LiF and Vacuum at 1173 K

The use of the solid- to- liquid phase transformation of LiF to store thermal energy is under consideration for a space- based solar dynamic system. Although advantageous in terms of its energy density, the melting point of this salt (1121K) is beyond the commonly accepted upper- use temperature of 1100 K for chromium- bearing superalloys in vacuum. However, one commercially available nickel- base superalloy (Hastelloy B- 2) is chromium free; unfortunately, because of its high molybdenum content, this alloy can form phases that cause high- temperature embrittlement. To test the suitability of Hastelloy B- 2, it has been exposed to molten LiF, its vapor and vacuum at 1173 K for 2500, 5000, and 10 h. For control, the chromium- containing cobalt- base Haynes alloy 188 and nickel- base Haynes alloy 230 were also exposed to LiF and vacuum at 1173 K for 5000 h. Neither LiF nor vacuum exposures had any significant effect on Hastelloy B- 2 in terms of microstructural surface damage or weight change. Measurement of the post exposure tensile properties of Hastelloy B- 2, nevertheless, revealed low tensile ductility at 1050 K. Such embrittlement and low strength at elevated temperatures appear to preclude the use of Hastelloy B- 2 as a containment material for LiF. Little evidence of significant attack by LiF was seen in either of the chromium- containing superalloys; however, considerable weight loss and near- surface microstructural damage occurred in both alloys exposed to vacuum. Although measurement of the post exposure room-temperature tensile properties of Haynes alloys 188 and 230 revealed no significant loss of strength or ductility, the severe degree of microstructural damage found in unshielded alloys exposed to vacuum indicates that chromium-bearing superalloys might also be unsuitable for prolonged containment of LiF in space above 1100 K. Keywords     

The oxidation behaviour of heat resisting metallic fibres

The behaviour of 22 pm diameter alloy fibres of Type 310 stainless steel, Hastelloy X, Inconel 601 and Fecralloy has been studied at 600°C in combustion gases with and without HCl addition. Chromia-forming alloys exhibited higher rates of attack than would have been expected from a consideration of the properties of the bulk material whereas normal rates of attack were observed for alumina-forming alloys. The addition of HCl to the combustion gases increased rates of attack for all alloys and generally this was associated with increased sulphur in the oxide layer. The results are discussed with reference to the unusual geometry of the samples, and it is suggested that the direction of motion of the ions in the growing oxide layer is an important factor governing its protective nature. Alloy depletion effects were also noted, particularly for some Fecralloy samples which were pre-oxidized before exposure, and this may cause eventual failure of the protective oxide. A common feature of the oxidation of iron-chromium alloys is the partitioning of elements in the scale; this was especially marked for the Type 310 stainless steel samples exposed in this work and a stress-assisted diffusion process is proposed to explain this effect.     

Corrosion of nickel-base and iron-base alloys in a simulated fluidized-bed coal-combustion environment

The modes of initiation and propagation of corrosion attack on a series of high-temperature alloys were studied in synthetic gas mixtures at 900°C. The gas mixtures were intended to simulate the oxygen and sulfur partial pressures experienced in reducing zones in a coal-fired fluidized-bed combustor and comprised mixtures of CO, CO₂, and SO₂. The alloys studied were candidates for in-bed heat exchanger tubing for an air-heater cycle operating at 843°C and 300–500 psig and so ranged from type 300-series stainless steels to nickel-base alloys. With the exception of two FeCrAlY alloys and types 304 and 347 stainless steels, it was found that sulfidation corrosion could be initiated on all the alloys within 0.25 hr; the rate of propagation of the corrosive attack depended on the flux of SO₂ in the environment and on the nickel content of the alloys. The presence of iron in the alloys appeared to slow the initiation of sulfidation, by forming a continuous iron oxide layer. The effects of various alloying additions are discussed, and a schematic model for the initiation of sulfidation is proposed.     

Thermogravimetric Study of Oxidation-Resistant Alloys for High-Temperature Solar Receivers

Three special alloys likely to be suitable for high-temperature solar receivers were studied for their resistance to oxidation up to a temperature of 1050°C in dry atmospheres of CO₂ and air. The alloys were Haynes HR160, Hastelloy X, and Haynes 230, all nickel-based alloys with greater than 20% chromium content. The oxidation rate of specimens cut from sample master alloys was followed by thermogravimetry by continuously monitoring the weight change with a microbalance for a test duration of 10 h. The corrosion resistance was deduced from the total weight increase of the specimens and the morphology of the oxide scale. The surface oxide layer formed (scale) was characterized by scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy and in all cases was found to be chromia. Oxidation was analyzed by means of parabolic rate law, albeit in some instances linear breakaway corrosion was also observed. For the temperature range investigated, all alloys corroded more in CO₂ than in air due to the formation of a stronger and more protective oxide scale in the presence of air. At 1000°C, the most resistant alloy to corrosion in CO₂ was Haynes 230. Alloy Haynes HR160 was the most oxidized alloy at 1000°C in both CO₂ and air. Hastelloy X oxidized to a similar extent in CO₂ at both 900°C and 1000°C, but in air, it resisted oxidation better at 1000°C than either at 900°C or 1000°C.     

Corrosion behavior of Ni-Cr-base commercial alloys in flowing Ar-42.6%O2-14.7%Br2 gas mixture at 700°C

Corrosion behavior of Ni-Cr-Base commercial alloys has been investigated in an argon-42.6% oxygen-14.7% bromine gas mixture at 700°C which was one of the environments encountered in the UT -3 thermochemical water decomposition reaction process to produce hydrogen. The test alloys were Inconel 600, Hastelloy C-276, Inconel 625, and Nimonic 80A. Two-dimensional thermodynamic phase stability diagrams were constructed for nickel, chromium, iron, tungsten, cobalt, titanium, and aluminium to predict the condensed corrosion products that are stable with respect to the representative alloying elements when the alloy is exposed to the argon-42.6% oxygen-14.7% bromine gas mixture at 700°C. The oxides were thermodynamically stable phases with respect to the corresponding metals. Post-reaction treatment of test alloys included discontinuous mass-change measurements, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron probe micro-analysis (EPMA) for morphological and compositional investigation of the corrosion products, and the X-ray diffraction (XRD) for phase identification. XRD identified oxides and spinels as corrosion products but low-melting metal bromides were also detected for all alloys with deleterious effects on high-temperature properties of these alloys during exposure to the environment. The poor corrosion resistance of Inconel 600 and Hastelloy C-276 was mainly caused by the cracking and spalling of iron and nickel-rich oxides and further growth of various metal bromides beneath the oxide scale following prolonged exposure. Inconel 625 and Nimonic 80A alloys performed better than Inconel 600 and Hastelloy C-276, mainly because of their aluminium alloying element and lower iron content.     

Morphological studies of some high nickel alloys in the region of the breakdown of passivity

The corrosion morphologies of four important high nickel alloys, Hastelloy B, Monel 400, Hastelloy C and Inconel 611 in a neutral (pH = 8.3) chloride/bicarbonate medium polarized potentiostatically until an anodic current density of 0.30 mA cm^?2 was reached have been studied.It has been shown that Hastelloy B undergoes shallow pitting; Monel 400 produces a porous film with dissolution sites followed by pits covered with corrosion products; Hastelloy C undergoes intergranular corrosion and Inconel 611 undergoes catastrophic pitting. The most superior alloy of these is Hastelloy C.     

Morphological studies of some high nickel alloys in the region of the breakdown of passivity

The corrosion morphologies of four important high nickel alloys, Hastelloy B, Monel 400, Hastelloy C and Inconel 611 in a neutral (pH = 8.3) chloride/bicarbonate medium polarized potentiostatically until an anodic current density of 0.30 mA cm⁻² was reached have been studied.It has been shown that Hastelloy B undergoes shallow pitting; Monel 400 produces a porous film with dissolution sites followed by pits covered with corrosion products; Hastelloy C undergoes intergranular corrosion and Inconel 611 undergoes catastrophic pitting. The most superior alloy of these is Hastelloy C.     

Constitutive Model for the Time-Dependent Mechanical Behavior of 430 Stainless Steel and FeCrAlY Foams in Sulfur-Bearing Environments

The mechanical behavior of 430 stainless steel and pre-oxidized FeCrAlY open-cell foam materials of various densities was evaluated in compression at temperatures between 450°C and 600°C in an environment containing hydrogen sulfide and water vapor. Both materials showed negligible corrosion due to the gaseous atmosphere for up to 168 h. The monotonic stress–strain response of these materials was found to be dependent on both the strain rate and their density, and the 430 stainless steel foam materials exhibited less stress relaxation than the FeCrAlY for similar experimental conditions. Using the results from multiple hardening-relaxation and monotonic tests, an empirical constitutive equation was derived to predict the stress–strain behavior of FeCrAlY foams as a function of temperature, and strain rate. These results are discussed in the context of using these materials in a black liquor gasifier to accommodate the chemical expansion of the refractory liner resulting from its reaction with the soda in the black liquor.     

Corrosion behavior of Fe-Cr and Fe-Ni-base commercial alloys in flowing Ar-42.6%O2-14.7%Br2 gas mixture at 700 °C

The corrosion behavior of Fe-Cr and Fe-Ni-Base commercial alloys has been investigated in an argon-42.6% oxygen-14.7% bromine gas mixture at 700 °C which was one of the environments encountered in the UT-3 thermochemical water decomposition reaction process to produce hydrogen. The test alloys were type 304 and 310 stainless steels, Incoloy 800, and Incoloy 825. Two-dimensional thermodynamic phase stability diagrams were constructed for iron, chromium, nickel, and titanium to predict the condensed corrosion products that are stable with respect to the representative alloying elements when the alloy is exposed to the argon-42.6% oxygen-14.7% bromine gas mixture at 700 °C. The oxides were thermodynamically stable phases with respect to the corresponding metals. Post-reaction treatment of test alloys included discontinuous mass-change measurements, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron probe micro-analysis (EPMA) for morphological and compositional investigation of the corrosion products, and the X-ray diffraction (XRD) for phase identification. XRD identified oxides and spinels as corrosion products but low-melting metal bromides were detected for all alloys with deleterious effects on high-temperature properties of these alloys during exposure to the environment. The poor corrosion resistance of the test alloys was mainly caused by the cracking and spalling of iron and chromium-rich oxides and further growth of various metal bromides beneath the oxide scale following prolonged exposure. The high iron content of the test alloys had deleterious effects on the performance of these alloys in the environment.     

Dissimilar welding of AISI 310 austenitic stainless steel to nickel-based alloy Inconel 657

The current work was carried out to characterize welding of AISI 310 austenitic stainless steel to Inconel 657 nickel–chromium superalloy. The welds were produced using four types of filler materials; the nickel-based corresponding to Inconel 82, Inconel A, Inconel 617 and 310 austenitic stainless steels. This paper describes the selection of welding consumables for the joint. The comparative evaluation was based on hot-cracking tests (Varestraint test) and estimation of mechanical properties. According to Varestraint tests, Inconel A showed the least susceptibility to hot cracking. In tension tests, all weldments failed in the weaker parent metals (i.e., Inconel 657). Moreover, Inconel A weldment had the highest strength and total elongation. On the other hand, the weld metals failed by ductile fracture except Inconel 617, which exhibited mixed fracture mode. At last, it was concluded that Inconel A filler material offered the best compromise for the joint between Inconel 657 and 310 stainless steel.     

Oxidation of high-temperature alloys (superalloys) at elevated temperatures in air: I

Four commercial alloys-Hastelloy C-4, alloy 1.4306S (SS 304L), Incoloy 800H, and Incoloy 825-were studied for their oxidation behavior at elevated temperatures. Specimens were exposed to air from 600 to 1200°C for 1 to 400 hr. Reaction kinetics of oxidation were determined, and the morphology of the surface-oxide scales was investigated. Hastelloy C-4 showed better resistance to oxidation dor exposure temperatures up to 1000°C in comparison with the other three alloys. In this temperature range, it follows a cubic rate law of oxidation due to formation of uniform, protective, and adherent oxide scales. The latter three alloys obeyed the parabolic rate law at 1000°C and 1200°C, but for lower temperatures a mixed behavior was shown. The oxide layer developed on the alloy 1.4306S was always in the form of stratified nodules/warts. For longer exposures the nodules joined each other to form continuous but discrete layers. Incoloy 800H and Incoloy 825 behaved in an almost identical manner, their reaction kinetics being governed by the parabolic rate law throughout the temperature range. Oxide spalling was observed at all temperatures. In contrast to Incoloy 800H the Incology 825 was totally oxidized for longer exposures at 1200°C.     

奥氏体不锈钢在熔融碳酸盐中的腐蚀

研究了含稀土316S和310S型不锈钢在650℃下(Li,K)2CO 3共晶熔盐中的腐蚀行为.结果表明：稀土元素能够通过促进富Cr氧化膜的形成而提高310S不 锈钢的耐蚀性能.316L(RE)由于具有较低的Cr含量,其耐蚀性能劣于310S合金.讨论了不锈钢 在熔盐中的腐蚀机理.     

Laboratory Studies of Galvanic Corrosion – II. Three-metal Couples

Electrochemical and weight loss measurements have been used to study galvanic corrosion of three-metal couples extending earlier studies of the galvanic interaction of two dissimilar metals. Materials studied include Zn, Cd, Cu, Ni, the Al alloys 2024, 6061 and 7075, 4130 steel, stainless steel 304, Ti-6Al-4V, Inconel 718 and Haynes 188 in 3.5% NaCl at 21°C. Different electrical arrangements for galvanic current measurements using the zero resistance ammeters (ZRA) are discussed. With the use of two ZRA's the current flowing on each of three metals can be continuously monitored. Weight loss data are used to obtain additional information concerning accelerated corrosion or protection of the individual metals in galvanic couples. Such measurements can be used to evaluate the corrosion behavior of metal combinations such as encountered in a porous Cd coating on a steel fastener installed on an Al structure.     

Corrosion Testing of some Austenitic Stainless Steels and of Inconel Alloy at 25°c in Acidic Chloride Solutions

Abstract

The corrosion of austenitic stainless steels types AISI 304, 310 and 316, and of Inconel alloy, was studied at 25°c, in 5% NaCl solution at an initial pH value of 2·5, and in 5% FeCl³ at pH 1·2. The resistance of the alloys in both corrosive environments was in the order: 310 > 316 > 304 > Inconel. Pre-treatment of the specimens with bubbling chlorine gas increased the subsequent corrosion rates of the alloys. Intermittent bubbling of gas mixtures such as Cl₂, N₂, and/or H₂S, increased the corrosion rate of Inconel alloy when Cl₂ was present, but decreased the corrosion rate when H₂ was present. Heat treatment of austenitic stainless steels increased the subsequent corrosion rates, whereas 16% pre-straining of annealed specimens slightly reduced the rates. Addition of trisodium phosphate to the corrosive solution reduced the corrosion rates and pitting tendency for all three types of austenitic stainless steel.     

High-Temperature Oxidation and Corrosion of Structural Materials in Molten Chlorides

A molten salt-based process for treatment of spent oxide fuels is under development at the Argonne National Laboratory. A major part of the development effort involves identification of corrosion-resistant structural materials for the process vessels. Coupons of two stainless steels, tantalum, and two Inconel alloys were submitted to a corrosion test in an argon atmosphere with 10% oxygen. The coupons were partially immersed in molten lithium chloride salt containing small amounts of lithium metal, lithium oxide, and lithium nitride. Two sets of coupons were tested, the first at 750°C for 30 days and the second at 650°C for 6 days. Coupons of the first set corroded completely. In the second set of coupons, all corroded to some extent, but Inconel 600 showed the best performance overall. The salt-exposed region generally showed the greatest corrosion in the other coupons. One of the 316L SS coupons was welded and the weld area was severely attacked.     

Hastelloy X和Haynes 230激光焊接头的组织性能

Hastelloy X和Haynes 230分别是F级和G/H级燃烧室薄壁筒体用的镍基高温合金,采用光纤激光器对2 mm厚度的两类镍基合金板材进行焊接试验,并对比焊态及焊后固溶处理的接头组织性能. 结果表明,焊态Hastelloy X的焊缝中碳化物呈网络状析出,其硬度高、韧性差,固溶处理后出现栅状组织及脆性Fe2W相. 在焊缝一次枝晶内的枝晶生长方向线性排列,取向各异,热影响区晶内也存在栅状组织. Haynes 230晶粒较小,焊缝碳化物沿树枝晶晶界链状断续析出,固溶处理后平直晶界变为弯曲晶界,蠕变性能得到提高.     

Corrosion behavior of Ni−Base alloys in a hot lithium molten salt under an oxidizing atmosphere

The electrolytic reduction of a spent oxide fuel involves the liberation of the oxygen in molten LiCl electrolyte, which is a chemically aggressive environment that is excessively corrosive for typical structural materials. Accordingly, it is essential to choose the optimum material for the processing equipment that handles the molten salt. In this study, the corrosion behaviors of Haynes 263, Haynes 75, Inconel 718 and Inconel X-750 in a molten LiCl?Li₂O salt under an oxidizing atmosphere were investigated at 650°C for 72 to 216 hrs. The Haynes 263 alloy showed the best corrosion resistance among the examined alloys. The corrosion products of Haynes 263 were Li(Ni,Co)O₂ and LiTiO₂; those of Haynes 75 were Cr₂O₃, NiFe₂O₄, LiNiO₂ and Li₂FiFe₂O₄; while Cr₂O₃, NiFe₂O₄ and CrNbO₄ were identified as the corrosion products of Inconel 718. Inconel X-750 produced Cr₂O₃, NiFe₂O₄ and (Cr, Nb, Ti)O₂ as its corrosion products. Haynes 263 showed a localized corrosion behavior while Haynes 75, Inconel 718 and Inconel X-750 showed a uniform corrosion behavior.