Analysis of a “cluster” strategy for introducing hydrogen vehicles in Southern California

The cost and logistics of building early hydrogen refueling infrastructure are key barriers to the commercialization of fuel cell vehicles. In this paper, we explore a “cluster strategy” for introducing hydrogen vehicles and refueling infrastructure in Southern California over the next decade, to satisfy California's Zero Emission Vehicle regulation. Clustering refers to coordinated introduction of hydrogen vehicles and refueling infrastructure in a few focused geographic areas such as smaller cities (e.g. Santa Monica, Irvine) within a larger region (e.g. Los Angeles Basin). We analyze several transition scenarios for introducing hundreds to tens of thousands of vehicles and 8–42 stations, considering:     

The question of the hydrogen infrastructure for motor vehicles

The hydrogen supply for motor vehicles is not necessarily connected with the development of its own infrastructure in the form of hydrogen pipeline networks. It can be shown that the existing infrastructures for electricity, gas and water for centralized and decentralized generation of hydrogen can be utilized practically in terms of energy. The technical possibilities for decentralized generation of hydrogen and its use as an auxiliary fuel to extend the gasoline supplies are described and discussed.     

Economic analysis of near-term California hydrogen infrastructure

A detailed economics model of hydrogen infrastructure in California has been developed and applied to assess several potential fuel cell vehicle deployment rate and hydrogen station technology scenarios. The model accounts for all of the costs in the hydrogen supply chain and specifically examines a network of 68 planned and existing hydrogen stations in terms of economic viability and dispensed hydrogen cost. Results show that (1) current high-pressure gaseous delivery and liquid delivery station technologies can eventually be profitable with relatively low vehicle deployment rates, and (2) the cost per mile for operating fuel cell vehicles can be lower than equivalent gasoline vehicles in both the near and long term.     

The future of hydrogen infrastructure for fuel cell vehicles in China and a case of application in Beijing

In the paper the future of hydrogen infrastructure for fuel cell vehicles in China is discussed. It is believed that, China should make different plans of hydrogen infrastructure during different periods and in different regions. Besides, a case of application in Beijing is studied to find the best plan for Beijing to develop hydrogen infrastructure in 2008 when Olympic Games will be held. In the study of that case, 11 feasible plans are designed at first according to the current technology of production, storage and transportation of hydrogen in China. After that, the energy, environmental and economic performances of these plans are evaluated with “life cycle assessment”. Finally, the best plan in the case is picked out from all the aspects of energy, environment and economy.     

Feasibility study on hydrogen refueling infrastructure for fuel cell vehicles using the off-peak power in Japan

It is examined that the technical feasibility, economics of hydrogen, improvement of the load factor and reduction of the carbon dioxide emission in the case where a hydrogen-refueling infrastructure is developed using the off-peak power in the existing electrical power grid in Japan. Hydrogen could be supplied to the fuel cell vehicles, of which cost would be almost the same as the current retail cost of gasoline exclusive of tax. Annual average load factor of 0.72% could be increased in 2020 to meet the hydrogen demand for the fuel cell vehicles in Japan by water electrolysis. The infrastructure cost of 0.12 trillion yen/year in 2020 would be necessary to be invested, which is almost the same as the reduction of annual expenses in the case where the increase of 1% in load factor could attain. Fuel cell vehicles using the electrolysis, hydrogen generated by the off-peak electricity could attain the 37% reduction of carbon dioxide emission compared with middle-sized internal gasoline combustion passenger cars.     

Pathways for hydrogen infrastructure development in China: Integrated assessment for vehicle fuels and a case study of Beijing

This paper analyzes the technical, economic, and environmental characteristics of different pathways for supplying hydrogen to vehicles in China. A life-cycle accounting of “well-to-tank” hydrogen delivery for 11 different infrastructure pathways reveals different relative economic costs and environmental benefits. Coal-derived methanol as a hydrogen carrier appears particularly promising for China from an economic standpoint. The analysis considers three different infrastructure models: (1) “point-to-point” distribution from well to fueling station; (2) an “idealized city model” with radial and network distribution within a city grid; and (3) a model of Beijing infrastructure growth that evolves over time. The analytical results, the infrastructure models, and the practical case of Beijing provide policy-makers with new tools for hydrogen development strategies.     

Analysing awareness and acceptability of hydrogen vehicles: A London case study

This paper investigates the determinants of knowledge and acceptability of hydrogen vehicles among London residents. Data was collected via a socio-economic survey of over four hundred residents. Results indicate that, at present, less than half of respondents have heard of hydrogen as a fuel for transport, and just over one-third are clearly in favour of the introduction of hydrogen vehicles. The key determinant of acceptability was having prior awareness of hydrogen technologies, as identified via logit regression analysis. Hydrogen awareness in turn was found to be related to gender, age, education and environmental knowledge. These results suggest that there is an opportunity to raise awareness of hydrogen technologies among the remaining three-fifths of the London population, although this is likely to require a differential approach to information provision.     

Mobile phone infrastructure development: Lessons for the development of a hydrogen infrastructure

The development of new infrastructure is often a consideration in the introduction of new innovations. Currently there is some confusion around how to develop a hydrogen infrastructure to support the introduction of FCVs. Lessons can be learned from similar technology introduction in the past and therefore this paper investigates how mobile phone infrastructure was developed allowing the mass-market penetration of mobile phones. Based on this successful infrastructural development suggestions can be made on the development of a hydrogen infrastructure. It is suggested that a hydrogen infrastructure needs to be pre-developed 3–5 years before the market introduction of FCVs can successfully occur. A lack of infrastructural pre-development will cause to the market introduction of FCVs to fail.     

Optimal transition towards a large-scale hydrogen infrastructure for the transport sector: The case for the Netherlands

A multi-period optimization framework based on a comprehensive techno-economic analysis is used to design spatially-explicit and time-evolutionary hydrogen (H₂) supply networks. It is of particular interest to investigate the spatio-temporal economic, environmental and energetic performance if H₂ were to be introduced as a fuel in the Dutch transport sector. A key observation is that the transition towards a large-scale H₂ supply infrastructure is economically viable, if designed optimally with a holistic long-term systems perspective. However, the well-to-tank (WtT) CO₂ emission reduction potential is limited (ca. 30%), which can be improved (ca. 85%) with carbon capture and storage (CCS). The spatially-explicit nature of the framework facilitates the design of efficient networks with a high network-wide WtT energy efficiency (ca. 50% or more). Furthermore, H₂ is observed to have the potential to alleviate Dutch energy security concerns. (Disclaimer: Results/comments are the authors’ and do not necessarily represent the views of the associated organizations/institutions).     

Technico-economic study of distributing hydrogen for automotive vehicles

The objective of this study is to estimate the technical and economic feasibilities of hydrogen applied to automotive traction. The problems of mass storage and transportation of hydrogen, capillary distribution, storage aboard vehicles and those concerning hydrogen thermal engines and hydrogen fuel cells are investigated. The different ways of using hydrogen, either compressed or liquefied or combined in hydrides, are taken into account.Energy and economic balance sheets lead to the conclusion that hydrogen internal combustion engines cannot compete with gasoline engines with regard to primary energy consumption and fuel cost. To the contrary, a hydrogen fuel cell, thanks to its high efficiency, provides for appreciable energy saving and leads to a fuel expense of the same order of magnitude as premium gasoline in an urban vehicle.     

Public perception on hydrogen infrastructure in Japan: Influence of rollout of commercial fuel cell vehicles

A public survey was conducted in March 2015 in Japan asking public awareness, knowledge, perception and acceptance regarding hydrogen, hydrogen infrastructure and fuel cell vehicle. Changes in answers were found by comparing results of current survey to those of the two previous surveys that were conducted six and seven years ago. We found a large increase in the awareness and relatively a small improvement on knowledge on hydrogen energy, hydrogen infrastructure and fuel cell vehicle from the previous surveys. In contrast we did not find much changes in perception of risk and benefit on hydrogen society and hydrogen station and public acceptance of hydrogen infrastructure. Through the regression analyses we found the small influence of time background as well as the influence of risk and benefit perception of hydrogen infrastructure on the acceptance. In conclusion, we find people have become a little more positive about hydrogen infrastructure in the baseline but more cautious about the risk and benefits. This can be interpreted as a change in the quality of perception and acceptance, that is, the favorable prejudice to hydrogen energy and fuel cell technologies has changed towards a slightly more rational support.     

Disruptive innovations: The case for hydrogen fuel cells and battery electric vehicles

The investment of private money in technological innovation is driven by the expectation of successful market penetration. This decision to invest is less risky when the innovation represents gradual improvement of existing technologies. The term disruptive innovation is used to describe the opposite case, i.e. innovations that are so different that their establishment in the market causes a disruption to the pre-existing system. The existing literature on disruptive innovations provides us with historic case studies of successful market capture by new technologies, but this in itself is insufficient to clarify the chances of success for nascent technologies. This paper sets out to bring greater clarity to the characteristics of disruptive innovation in a way that informs the debate on the viability of emerging technologies. Whilst existing definitions are based on technologies that were successful, this paper proposes a three part criteria to define candidate disruptive technologies: disruption should relate to manufacturers and/or infrastructure (the two often being inter-related), whilst innovation must provide more than the equivalence of service to the end-user. A review of seven historical case studies of successful disruptive technologies reveals seven characteristics of candidate disruptive technologies at the stage of niche market penetration. Examining battery electric and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles against these seven characteristics, shows that both candidate disruptive technologies share the same challenges as those identified in the successful historic case studies and also helps to identify potential pathways to greater market penetration in the future for these technologies.     

Scope and perspectives of industrial hydrogen production and infrastructure for fuel cell vehicles in North Rhine-Westphalia

A promising candidate that may follow conventional vehicles with internal combustion engines combines hydrogen from regenerative sources of energy, fuel cells and an electric drive train. For early fleets introduced the refuelling infrastructure needs to be in place at least to the extent of the vehicles operational reach. The question arises which strategies may help to keep initial hydrogen and infrastructure cost low? Industrial production, distribution and use of hydrogen is well-established and the volumes handled are substantial. Even though today's industrial hydrogen is not in tune with the long-term sustainable vision, hydrogen production and infrastructure already in place might serve as a nucleus for putting that vision into practice. This contribution takes stock of industrial production and use of hydrogen in North Rhine-Westphalia based on a recently finalized project. It demonstrates to which extent industrial hydrogen could be used for a growing number of vehicles and at which time additional capacity might need to be installed.     

Behavioral response to hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and refueling: Results of California drive clinics

Over the last several decades, hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) have emerged as a zero tailpipe-emission alternative to the battery electric vehicle (EV). To address questions about consumer reaction to FCVs, this report presents the results of a “ride-and-drive” clinic series (N = 182) held in 2007 with a Mercedes-Benz A-Class “F-Cell” hydrogen FCV. The clinic evaluated participant reactions to driving and riding in an FCV, as well as vehicle refueling. Pre-and post-clinic surveys assessed consumer response. More than 80% left with a positive overall impression of hydrogen. The majority expressed a willingness to travel 5–10 min to find a hydrogen station. More than 90% of participants would consider an FCV driving range of 300 miles (480 km) to be acceptable. Stated willingness-to-pay preferences were explored. The results show that short-term exposure can improve consumer perceptions of hydrogen performance and safety among people who are the more likely early adopters.     

Risk analysis for the infrastructure of a hydrogen economy

Increasing scarcity of fossil fuels makes the deployment of hydrogen in combination with renewable energy sources, nuclear energy or the utilization of electricity from full time operation of existing power stations an interesting alternative. A pre-requisite is, however, that the safety of the required infrastructure is investigated and that its design is made such that the associated risk is at least not higher than that of existing supplies. Therefore, a risk analysis considering its most important objects such as storage tanks, filling stations, vehicles as well as heating and electricity supplies for residential buildings was carried out. The latter are considered as representative of the entire infrastructure. The study is based on fault and event tree analyses, wherever required, and consequence calculations using the PHAST code. The procedure for evaluating the risk and corresponding results are presented taking one of the objects as an example.     

Comparative risk study of hydrogen and gasoline dispensers for vehicles

This paper describes an investigation into the acceptability of installing hydrogen dispensers in public areas based on risk assessments. Because gasoline dispenser risks have been widely accepted for many years, they were used as a benchmark in this study to analyze the risks of hydrogen dispensers. More specifically, we performed risk assessments for both hydrogen and gasoline dispensers and then compared and analyzed the results. We began the process by creating models for both hydrogen and gasoline dispensers that represented their various specifications and elements. Next, potential accident scenarios for each dispenser model were identified by failure mode effect analysis (FMEA) and hazard and operability study (HAZOP). The risks of each scenario were then qualitatively evaluated and the results were organized into risk matrices. By comparing the results of both hydrogen and gasoline dispensers with and without existing safety measures, the appropriateness of their safety measures were validated. Furthermore, by comparing the results of hydrogen and gasoline dispenser safety measures, it was confirmed that the risk levels of the two types were practically equivalent. Therefore, we concluded that the risks involved with installing hydrogen dispensers in public areas can be considered acceptable.     

Measurement challenges for hydrogen vehicles

Uptake of hydrogen vehicles is an ideal solution for countries that face challenging targets for carbon dioxide reduction. The advantage of hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles is that they behave in a very similar way to petrol engines yet they do not emit any carbon containing products during operation. The hydrogen industry currently faces the dilemma that they must meet certain measurement requirements (set by European legislation) but cannot do so due to a lack of available methods and standards. This paper outlines the four biggest measurement challenges that are faced by the hydrogen industry including flow metering, quality assurance, quality control and sampling.     

GIS-based scenario calculations for a nationwide German hydrogen pipeline infrastructure

This study assumes a high penetration of hydrogen-fuelled vehicles for Germany in 2050 and investigates the structure of a potential pipeline network for hydrogen transmission and distribution under different scenarios for H₂ production and demand. All data are georeferenced for their computation and displayed within a Geographical Information System (GIS) environment.     

Demonstration of a novel assessment methodology for hydrogen infrastructure deployment

To reduce criteria pollutant emissions and greenhouse gases from mobile sources, the use of hydrogen as a transportation fuel is proposed as a new paradigm in combination with fuel cells for vehicle power. The extent to which reductions can and will occur depends on the mix of technologies that constitute the hydrogen supply chain. This paper introduces an analysis and planning methodology for estimating emissions, greenhouse gases, and the energy efficiency of the hydrogen supply chain as a function of the technology mix on a life cycle, well to wheels (WTW) basis. The methodology, referred to as the preferred combination assessment (PCA) model, is demonstrated by assessing an illustrative set of hydrogen infrastructure (generation and distribution) deployment scenarios in California's South Coast Air Basin. Each scenario reflects a select mix of technologies for the years 2015, 2030, and 2060 including (1) the proportion of fossil fuels and renewable energy sources of the hydrogen and (2) the rate of hydrogen fuel cell vehicle adoption. The hydrogen deployment scenarios are compared to the existing paradigm of conventional vehicles and fuels with a goal to reveal and evaluate the efficacy and utility of the PCA methodology. In addition to a demonstration of the methodology, the salient conclusions reached from this first application include the following.

•

Emissions of criteria pollutants increase or decrease, depending on the hydrogen deployment scenario, when compared to an evolution of the existing paradigm of conventional vehicles and fuels.     

Towards a sustainable hydrogen economy: Hydrogen pathways and infrastructure

Results from the European HySociety project (2003–2005) are revealed in which political, societal and technical challenges for developing a European hydrogen economy have been addressed. The focus is placed on the assessments of hydrogen pathways and infrastructure. It will show that no chain can be selected as an obvious winner according to primary energy demand, emission and cost. In order to ensure that the pathway losses are compensated by the more efficient end-use of the H₂ fuel, calculations based on well-to-tank losses and tank-to-wheel efficiencies are used. Furthermore, in order to look into the consequences of introducing hydrogen, a top-down scenario has been worked out. The message is that certainly the hydrogen distribution part for the transport application has to be improved to avoid loosing the emission gain that is obtainable, especially via carbon capture and storage of the CO₂. In order to quantify the market development a bottom-up approach has been established in particular for the transport sector.