Rethinking the evaluation of algorithm animations as learning aids: an observational study

One important aspect of creating computer programs is having a sound understanding of the underlying algorithms used by programs. Learning about algorithms, just like learning to program, is difficult, however. A number of prior studies have found that using animation to help teach algorithms had less beneficial effects on learning than hoped. Those results surprise many computer science instructors whose intuition leads them to believe that algorithm animations should assist instruction. This article reports on a study in which animation is utilized in more of a “homework” learning scenario rather than a “final exam” scenario. Our focus is on understanding how learners will utilize animation and other instructional materials in trying to understand a new algorithm, and on gaining insight into how animations can fit into successful learning strategies. The study indicates that students use sophisticated combinations of instructional materials in learning scenarios. In particular, the presence of algorithm animations seems to make a complicated algorithm more accessible and less intimidating, thus leading to enhanced student interaction with the materials and facilitating learning.     

Using animation to help students learn computer algorithms

This paper compares the effects of graphical study aids and animation on the problem-solving performance of students learning computer algorithms. Prior research has found inconsistent effects of animation on learning, and we believe this is partly attributable to animations not being designed to convey key information to learners. We performed an instructional analysis of the to-be-learned algorithms and designed the teaching materials based on that analysis. Participants studied stronger or weaker text-based information about the algorithm, and then some participants additionally studied still frames or an animation. Across 2 studies, learners who studied materials based on the instructional analysis tended to outperform other participants on both near and far transfer tasks. Animation also aided performance, particularly for participants who initially read the weaker text. These results suggest that animation might be added to curricula as a way of improving learning without needing revisions of existing texts and materials. Actual or potential applications of this research include the development of animations for learning complex systems as well as guidelines for determining when animations can aid learning.     

Top-down and bottom-up influences on learning from animations

To evaluate how top-down and bottom-up processes contribute to learning from animated displays, we conducted four experiments that varied either in the design of animations or the prior knowledge of the learners. Experiments 1–3 examined whether adding interactivity and signaling to an animation benefits learners in developing a mental model of a mechanical system. Although learners utilized interactive controls and signaling devices, their comprehension of the system was no better than that of learners who saw animations without these design features. Furthermore, the majority of participants developed a mental model of the system that was incorrect and inconsistent with information displayed in the animation. Experiment 4 tested effects of domain knowledge and found, surprisingly, that even some learners with high domain knowledge initially constructed the incorrect mental model. After multiple exposures to the materials, the high knowledge learners revised their mental models to the correct one, while the low-knowledge learners maintained their erroneous models. These results suggest that learning from animations involves a complex interplay between top-down and bottom-up processes and that more emphasis should be placed on how prior knowledge is applied to interpreting animations.     

Toward the effective use of educational program animations: The roles of student's engagement and topic complexity

Programming is one of the most complex subjects in computer science degrees. Program visualization is one of the approaches adopted to make programming concepts more accessible to students. In this work we study the educational impact of an active and highly engaging approach, namely the construction of program animations by students. We systematically compared this approach with two instructional scenarios, based on viewing animations and on the traditional instruction without systematic use of animations. A general conclusion of this work is that animations actually improve learning in terms of some educational aspects: short-term and long-term knowledge acquisition, and drop-out rates. Short-term improvements depend on the complexity level of the topic: while there is no impact for simple topics, there is a learning improvement in complex topics using the viewing and constructing approaches, and there is a learning improvement for highly complex topics using the viewing approach. In the long-term, drop-out rates were significantly decreased for students involved in the two most engaging approaches. In addition, both animation viewing and animation construction improved students' passing-rate in the term exam. Nevertheless, we were unable to prove in the long term that students involved in construction tasks yielded higher grades than those involved in viewing tasks.     

Strategic learning from expository animations: Short- and mid-term effects

In an experimental study, we investigated whether making use of a cognitive learning strategy (1) improves learning from different expository animations, (2) leads to an acquisition of knowledge which is available beyond the learning period, and (3) equally benefits students with low and high cognitive ability alike. A total of 152 sixth graders participated in the study: 69 students learned from an animation about the dances of honeybees and 83 students learned from an animation about sailing. With respect to both animations, the students who made use of the learning strategy significantly outperformed the students who had to write a summary. Effect sizes are medium to large. The beneficial effects of the learning strategy were also verified one week after the learning took place. The results of this study do not support the assumption that students with low and high cognitive ability benefit differently from the strategy.     

3D visualization types in multimedia applications for science learning: A case study for 8th grade students in Greece

This research aims to determine whether the use of specific types of visualization (3D illustration, 3D animation, and interactive 3D animation) combined with narration and text, contributes to the learning process of 13- and 14- years-old students in science courses. The study was carried out with 212 8th grade students in Greece. This exploratory study utilizes three different versions of an interactive multimedia application called “Methods of separation of mixtures”, each one differing from the other two in a type of visuals. The results indicate that multimedia applications with interactive 3D animations as well as with 3D animations do in fact increase the interest of students and make the material more appealing to them. The findings also suggest that the most obvious and essential benefit of static visuals (3D illustrations) is that they leave the time control of learning to the students and decrease the cognitive load.     

Learning by generating vs. receiving instructional explanations: Two approaches to enhance attention cueing in animations

This study investigated whether learners construct more accurate mental representations from animations when instructional explanations are provided via narration than when learners attempt to infer functional relations from the animation through self-explaining. Also effects of attention guidance by means of cueing are investigated. Psychology students were given retention, inference, and transfer tests after studying a cued or an uncued animation of the cardiovascular system with learner-generated self-explanations or with externally provided instructional explanations. Results indicated that cued animations were more effective than uncued animations. Furthermore, results on retention and transfer indicated no differences between self-explaining and providing instructional explanations, but instructional explanations accompanying animations led to higher inference scores. It is concluded that whether explanations are generated or presented may be less important than the provision of cues that enable focused processing of presented or produced explanations.     

Learning from instructional animations: How does prior knowledge mediate the effect of visual cues?

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of cueing and prior knowledge on learning and mental effort of students studying an animation with narration. This study employed a 2 (no cueing vs. visual cueing) × 2 (low vs. high prior knowledge) between‐subjects factorial design. The results revealed a significant interaction effect between prior knowledge and cueing on learning. Low prior knowledge learners had higher scores after studying an instructional animation with visual cues, compared to those who studied the same instructional animation without visual cues. Conversely, when cues were not provided, high prior knowledge learners outperformed those high prior knowledge learners who studied with the cued version of an instructional animation. These results indicated that the effects of cueing in an instructional animation change depending on the learners' level of prior knowledge. Specifically, low prior knowledge learners benefited more when visual cues were provided, whereas cues did not facilitate learning for high prior knowledge learners.     

What You See Is What You Code: A “live” algorithm development and visualization environment for novice learners

Pedagogical algorithm visualization (AV) systems produce graphical representations that aim to assist learners in understanding the dynamic behavior of computer algorithms. In order to foster active learning, computer science educators have developed AV systems that empower learners to construct their own visualizations of algorithms under study. Notably, these systems support a similar development model in which coding an algorithm is temporally distinct from viewing and interacting with the resulting visualization. Given that they are known to have problems both with formulating syntactically correct code, and with understanding how code executes, novice learners would appear likely to benefit from a more “live” development model that narrows the gap between coding an algorithm and viewing its visualization. In order to explore this possibility, we have implemented “What You See Is What You Code,” an algorithm development and visualization model geared toward novices first learning to program under the imperative paradigm. In the model, the line of algorithm code currently being edited is reevaluated on every edit, leading to immediate syntactic feedback, along with immediate semantic feedback in the form of an AV. Analysis of usability and field studies involving introductory computer science students suggests that the immediacy of the model's feedback can help novices to quickly identify and correct programming errors, and ultimately to develop semantically correct code.     

The role of spatial ability in learning from instructional animations - Evidence for an ability-as-compensator hypothesis

In two experiments, the role of spatial ability in learning from an instructional animation versus a series of static pictures was studied. In both experiments, a statistical interaction of spatial ability and type of visualization was obtained: Low-spatial ability students showed poor learning outcome when learning from pictures while high-spatial students did not; when learning from animation, however, learning outcome was independent from spatial ability. The results are in line with an ability-as-compensator hypothesis which states that constructing mental animations from non-dynamic materials needs spatial ability; with animated learning materials, however, spatial ability is not required. No overall differences between static pictures and animation were found.     

有机化学综合设计型实验的计算机模拟

利用Flash动画和Director多媒体技术,开发制作了有机化学实验计算机模拟软件。在系统模拟有机化学实验的基本知识和单元实验的基础上,重点对一些综合型、设计型实验进行了仿真模拟,内容包括12项单元实验、42项综合实验和2项示范性设计实验。     

Teaching genetics with multimedia results in better acquisition of knowledge and improvement in comprehension

The main goal of this study was to explore whether the use of multimedia in genetics instruction contributes more to students' knowledge and comprehension than other instructional modes. We were also concerned with the influence of different instructional modes on the retention of knowledge and comprehension. In a quasi‐experimental design, four comparable groups of 3rd and 4th grade high school students were taught the process of protein synthesis: group 1 was taught in the traditional lecture format (n = 112 students), group 2 only by reading text (n = 124 students), group 3 through multimedia that integrated two short computer animations (n = 115 students) and group 4 by text supplemented with illustrations (n = 117 students). All students received one pre‐test in order to estimate their prior knowledge, and two post‐tests in order to assess knowledge and comprehension immediately after learning and again after 5 weeks. Results showed that students comprising groups 3 and 4 acquired better knowledge and improved comprehension skills than the other two groups. Similar results were observed for retention of acquired knowledge and improved comprehension. These findings lead to the conclusion that better learning outcomes can be obtained by the use of animations or at least illustrations when learning genetics.     

动画演示与算法教学研究

算法向来就是计算机教学中的难点，一般算法教学方法很难有效帮助学生理解算法。通过分析算法动画演示的认知作用，强调只有好的算法动画演示才能有效促进算法学习，然后从认知主体需要出发，提出设计好算法动画演示的四个原则。说明只有认真调查研究每一个算法的演示目标和重点，合理安排演示内容和形式，才能设计出一个好的算法动画演示系统。     

The comparisons of the influences of prior knowledge on two game-based learning systems

Game-based learning provides many benefits, such as enhancing the interaction with students and stimulating their learning motivation. Thus, it is popular to learners who have diverse characteristics. To this end, individual differences play an essential role. Among various individual differences, previous studies demonstrated that prior knowledge has great effects on game-based learning. However, such studies mainly considered a single game-based learning system. To address this issue, this study examined how prior knowledge affects students' reactions to two different types of game based learning systems, i.e., the Machinarium and the CSI: Web Adventures. The former delivers procedural knowledge while the latter provides declarative knowledge. The results from this study indicate that prior knowledge has positive impacts in the CSI group while it has negative impacts in the Machinarium group. These findings imply that prior knowledge is useful for the context of declarative knowledge while it may not be helpful for the context of procedural knowledge.     

Rotational perspective and learning procedural tasks from dynamic media

There have been conflicting accounts regarding the effectiveness of animations for learning. Procedural motor learning represents one of the few areas in which animations have consistently shown to be facilitative. Some have suggested that this benefit is related to activation of the mirror neuron system (MNS), with higher activation leading to better performance. This study examines this explanation, and observed the effects of instructional media (animation vs. static), as a function of viewing perspective (face-to-face vs. over-the-shoulder) on understanding a procedural motor task (knot tying). Results indicate that performance was significantly improved with animations over static images, however this appeared to be most pronounced in situations which matched the learners' own perspective (i.e., over-the-shoulder). These findings have implications for the design of instructional media for procedural motor tasks and provide confirmation of the assertion that appropriate activation of the perceptual system can be leveraged to increase performance.     

How flipped learning based on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning affects students' academic achievements

The study aims to identify the effect of a flipped classroom approach designed according to the cognitive theory of multimedia learning on the academic achievements of eighth‐grade students (aged 14 years) in Saudi Arabia in computer science. To this end, a quasi‐experimental design was used, with a sample of 67 students; 33 students were assigned to the experimental group, whereas 34 comprised the control group. The experimental group was subjected to the flipped classroom approach, whereas the control group was given direct instruction. To measure student achievements, an instrument that measures cognitive skills based on Revised Bloom's taxonomy levels was designed. Findings revealed a positive effect on the experimental group's achievement levels with respect to Bloom's higher order thinking skills, that is, applying, analysing, and evaluating. No difference was found between the two groups in terms of academic achievements at the remembering and understanding levels of Bloom's taxonomy. Moreover, learners with low prior knowledge showed a higher improvement in academic achievements compared with those with high prior knowledge. This corresponds to the assumption of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning that learners with low prior knowledge would benefit from its principles more than learners with high prior knowledge.     

Explaining the segmentation effect in learning from animations: The role of pausing and temporal cueing

Segmentation of animations, that is presenting them in pieces rather than as a continuous stream of information, has been shown to have a beneficial effect on cognitive load and learning for novices. Two different explanations of this segmentation effect have been proposed. Firstly, pauses are usually inserted between the segments, which may give learners extra time to perform necessary cognitive processes. Secondly, because segmentation divides animations into meaningful pieces, it provides a form of temporal cueing which may support learners in perceiving the underlying structure of the process or procedure depicted in the animation. This study investigates which of these explanations is the most plausible. Secondary education students (N = 161) studied animations on probability calculation, after having been randomly assigned to one of four conditions: non-segmented animations, animations segmented by pauses only, animations segmented by temporarily darkening the screen only, and animations segmented by both pauses and temporarily darkening the screen. The results suggest that both pauses and cues play a role in the segmentation effect, but in a different way.     

A review of learning demands in instructional animations: The educational effectiveness of animations unfolds if the features of change need to be learned

In a systematic review, 194 studies on learning from animation were analysed. The analysis covers the learning domains, the representational characteristics of the animations, the assessed perceptual and cognitive achievements, and the assessment formats. Research on learning from animation focuses on assessing conceptual at the neglect of kinematic mental models. This is in contrast to an important rationale for making use of animations: that it needs to be learned what animations can specifically display, namely, how change in space and time occurs. This might explain why meta-analyses which compared the effectiveness of animations and static pictures found merely small overall effect sizes in favour of animations. To confirm this hypothesis, one meta-analysis was re-analysed with a new moderator. It encodes whether the features of the displayed changes were relevant to learning. Learning from animations was significantly more successful than learning from static pictures, if the features of the displayed changes had to be learned.