Predicting relapse: A meta-analysis of sexual offender recidivism studies.

Evidence from 61 follow-up studies was examined to identify the factors most strongly related to recidivism among sexual offenders. On average, the sexual offense recidivism rate was low (13.4%; n?=?23,393). There were, however, subgroups of offenders who recidivated at high rates. Sexual offense recidivism was best predicted by measures of sexual deviancy (e.g., deviant sexual preferences, prior sexual offenses) and, to a lesser extent, by general criminological factors (e.g., age, total prior offenses). Those offenders who failed to complete treatment were at higher risk for reoffending than those who completed treatment. The predictors of nonsexual violent recidivism and general (any) recidivism were similar to those predictors found among nonsexual criminals (e.g., prior violent offenses, age, juvenile delinquency). Our results suggest that applied risk assessments of sexual offenders should consider separately the offender's risk for sexual and nonsexual recidivism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sexual offender recidivism revisited: A meta-analysis of recent treatment studies.

Meta-analyses were performed on 12 studies of treatment with sexual offenders (N?=?1,313). A small, but robust, overall effect size was found for treatment versus comparison conditions (r?=?.12). The overall recidivism rate for treated sexual offenders was .19 versus .27 for untreated sexual offenders. Treatment effect sizes across studies, however, were heterogeneous. Effect sizes were larger in studies that had higher base rates of recidivism, had follow-up periods longer than 5 years, included outpatients, and involved cognitive-behavioral or hormonal treatments. Cognitive-behavioral (p?p?     

Criminological predictors of recidivism in a sexual offender population.

In the present study, the utility of criminological variables as predictors of recidivism was investigated among 342 male sexual offenders. A multivariate regression analysis indicated that arrests for sexual offenses against adults were associated with arrests for sexual re-offenses against adults and with nonsexual violent re-arrests. Sexual-re-offense specialization was observed among sexual offenders with adult and with child victims. Although many of the relations were statistically significant, the magnitude of these relations does not warrant the sole use of criminological variables for decisions regarding individual sexual offenders. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A meta-analysis of predictors of offender treatment attrition and its relationship to recidivism.

Objective: The failure of offenders to complete psychological treatment can pose significant concerns, including increased risk for recidivism. Although a large literature identifying predictors of offender treatment attrition has accumulated, there has yet to be a comprehensive quantitative review. Method: A meta-analysis of the offender treatment literature was conducted to identify predictors of offender treatment attrition and examine its relationship to recidivism. The review covered 114 studies representing 41,438 offenders. Sex offender and domestic violence programs were also examined separately given their large independent literatures. Results: The overall attrition rate was 27.1% across all programs (k = 96), 27.6% from sex offender programs (k = 34), and 37.8% from domestic violence programs (k = 35). Rates increased when preprogram attrition was considered. Significant predictors included demographic characteristics (e.g., age, rw = ?.10), criminal history and personality variables (e.g., prior offenses, rw = .14; antisocial personality, rw = .14), psychological concerns (e.g., intelligence, rw = ?.14), risk assessment measures (e.g., Statistical Information on Recidivism scale, rw =.18), and treatment-related attitudes and behaviors (e.g., motivation, rw = ?.13). Results indicated that treatment noncompleters were higher risk offenders and attrition from all programs significantly predicted several recidivism outcomes ranging from rw = .08 to .23. Conclusions: The clients who stand to benefit the most from treatment (i.e., high-risk, high-needs) are the least likely to complete it. Offender treatment attrition can be managed and clients can be retained through an awareness of, and attention to, key predictors of attrition and adherence to responsivity considerations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The long-term prediction of offender recidivism using diagnostic, personality, and risk/need approaches to offender assessment.

The present study examined the prediction of recidivism using diagnostic, personality, and risk/need approaches over a 10-year follow-up in a heterogeneous sample of 61 offenders (i.e., probationers and provincial and federal offenders). The Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (LS/CMI), Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), and DSM-III antisocial personality disorder (APD) were examined. The measures were highly correlated and demonstrated theoretically meaningful patterns of convergent validity. Although psychopathy was highly correlated with both LS/CMI and APD, the majority of the shared variance with LS/CMI and with APD was accounted for by Factor 2 and the criminality facet of the PCL-R. All three assessment measures predicted future violence, any future reincarceration upon release, and recidivism severity (as measured by aggregate sentence length). However, none of these measures made a significant incremental contribution to the prediction of recidivism beyond either of the other two measures. Differences between the predictive validities of the three measures were minimal. The results are discussed in terms of recent debates concerning the use of these instruments in the assessment of offender risk. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in childhood psychopathology: A review.

Reviews sex differences in the major categories of childhood behavior disorders most relevant to the issue of continuity between child and adult disorders. Explanations for these differences are explored with attention given to both the different experiences and the different endowments of the sexes. These differences are then compared and contrasted with sex differences in adult psychopathology. (4? p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in occupational stress: A meta-analytic review.

Meta-analysis was performed on 15 studies that examined sex differences in occupational stress. Contrary to previous qualitative literature reviews, these results indicate that there are no sex differences in experienced and perceived work stress. Moderator analyses were conducted. Because null results were obtained, a discussion of empirical and theoretical shortcomings in the sex-occupational stress literature was presented for consideration by future researchers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex role orientation and self-esteem: A critical meta-analytic review.

Research on the relation between sex-role orientation and psychological well-being has been guided by 1 of 3 models. The traditional congruence model holds that psychological well-being is fostered only when one's sex-role orientation is congruent with one's gender; the androgyny model proposes that well-being is maximized when one's sex-role orientation incorporates a high degree of both masculinity and femininity regardless of one's gender; the masculinity model posits that well-being is a function of the extent to which one has a masculine sex-role orientation. The adequacy of the models was tested by meta-analysis of 35 studies of the relation between sex-role orientation and self-esteem, the indicator of psychological well-being most widely used in sex-role studies. Results of the analysis are most supportive of the masculinity model and showed that the strength of observed relations between sex-role orientation and self-esteem varied as a function of both the sex-role measure and the type of self-esteem measure used in the studies. Methodological issues are identified that should be taken into consideration in future research. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in cooperation: A meta-analytic review of social dilemmas.

Although it is commonly believed that women are kinder and more cooperative than men, there is conflicting evidence for this assertion. Current theories of sex differences in social behavior suggest that it may be useful to examine in what situations men and women are likely to differ in cooperation. Here, we derive predictions from both sociocultural and evolutionary perspectives on context-specific sex differences in cooperation, and we conduct a unique meta-analytic study of 272 effect sizes—sampled across 50 years of research—on social dilemmas to examine several potential moderators. The overall average effect size is not statistically different from zero (d = –0.05), suggesting that men and women do not differ in their overall amounts of cooperation. However, the association between sex and cooperation is moderated by several key features of the social context: Male–male interactions are more cooperative than female–female interactions (d = 0.16), yet women cooperate more than men in mixed-sex interactions (d = –0.22). In repeated interactions, men are more cooperative than women. Women were more cooperative than men in larger groups and in more recent studies, but these differences disappeared after statistically controlling for several study characteristics. We discuss these results in the context of both sociocultural and evolutionary theories of sex differences, stress the need for an integrated biosocial approach, and outline directions for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review.

Meta-analyses of sex differences in physical aggression to heterosexual partners and in its physical consequences are reported. Women were slightly more likely (d?=?–.05) than men to use one or more acts of physical aggression and to use such acts more frequently. Men were more likely (d?=?.15) to inflict an injury, and overall, 62% of those injured by a partner were women. The findings partially support previous claims that different methods of measurement produce conflicting results, but there was also evidence that the sample was an important moderator of effect size. Continuous models showed that younger aged dating samples and a lower proportion of physically aggressive males predicted effect sizes in the female direction. Analyses were limited by the available database, which is biased toward young dating samples in the United States. Wider variations are discussed in terms of two conflicting norms about physical aggression to partners that operate to different degrees in different cultures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Violent recidivism: Assessing predictive validity.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 73(4) of Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology (see record 2007-16787-001). In this article, several errors are present on pp. 738 and 746. The corrections are listed in the erratum.] Until very recently, there has been little evidence of the ability of either clinicians or actuarial instruments to predict violent behavior. Moreover, a confusing variety of measures have been proposed for the evaluation of the accuracy of predictions. This report demonstrates that receiver operating characteristics (ROCs) have advantages over other measures inasmuch as they are simultaneously independent of the base rate for violence in the populations studied and of the particular cutoff score chosen to classify cases as likely to be violent. In an illustration of the value of this approach, the base rates of violence were altered with the use of data from 3.5-, 6-, and 10-year follow-ups of 799 previously violent men. Base rates for the 10-year follow-up were also altered by changing the definition of violent recidivism and by examining a high-risk subgroup. The report also shows how ROC methods can be used to compare the performance of different instruments for the prediction of violence. The report illustrates how ROCs facilitate decisions about whether, at a particular base rate, the use of a prediction instrument is warranted. Finally, some of the limitations of ROCs are outlined, and some cautionary remarks are made with regard to their use. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Computerized offender assessment: Validation study.

Evaluated the validity of a computer-based test interpretation (CBTI) system for mental health screening in correctional settings. First, 100 adult male felons were administered a brief mental status interview and a series of psychological tests, including the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), the revised Beta IQ Examination, and the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory. Psychiatric diagnoses and CBTI ratings of victimization, violence, suicide, and substance abuse potentials were compared with clinicians' evaluations. Second, CBTI diagnoses of 109 inmates were compared with Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS) diagnoses. Last, CBTI risk ratings were compared with institutional infraction records of 1,718 inmates. Agreement with CBTI and clinicians' risk ratings was fair. CBTI agreement with clinicians' and DIS diagnoses ranged from 60–93%. Ways of improving CBTI algorithms and the value of this approach in correctional screening are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

More on recidivism.

Responds to comments by R. W. Jeffery and R. R. Wing (1983), J. W. Osberg (1983), and J. O. Prochaska (1983) concerning Schachter's (see record 1982-30809-001) study of self-treatment for smoking and obesity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The MMPI and recidivism.

Compared MMPIs of 80 recidivists and 68 parole successes from a state training school by analyzing mean scale scores, elevations, code types, and mean ranks of the clinical scales. No important differences were identified. Conclusions are (1) the MMPI used alone is not useful in identifying recidivists in relatively homogeneous delinquent populations, (2) its use should be restricted to the exploration of small differences between groups, and (3) the combined use of historical information and the MMPI to identify recidivists needs study. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Long-term recidivism of child molesters.

Examined the long-term recidivism rates of 197 child molesters released from prison between 1958 and 1974. Overall, 42% of the total sample were reconvicted for sexual crimes, violent crimes, or both, with 10% of the total sample reconvicted 10–31 yrs after being released. Incest offenders were reconvicted at a slower rate than were offenders who selected only boys, with offenders against girls showing a rate intermediate between these 2 groups. Other factors associated with increased recidivism were (1) never being married and (2) previous sexual offenses. None of the mental health and personality tests used in this study (e.g., the Eysenck Personality Inventory and the MMPI) was significantly associated with recidivism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The personality paradox in offender profiling: A theoretical review of the processes involved in deriving background characteristics from crime scene actions.

Most approaches to offender profiling depend on a na?ve trait perspective, in which the task of predicting personality characteristics from crime scene actions relies on a model that is nomothetic, deterministic, and nonsituationist. These approaches rest on two basic premises: behavioral consistency across offenses and stable relationships between configurations of offense behaviors and background characteristics. Research supports the former premise but not the latter. Contemporary trait psychology reveals that this is probably due to the fact that Person X Situation interactions have an effect on offense behavior. When profiling reports rely on a nalve trait approach, such reports should be used with caution in criminal investigations and not at all as evidence in court until research demonstrates its predictive validity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex steroid metabolism and menstrual irregularities in the exercising female. A review

This article aims to clarify why, and by which mechanisms, exercise may influence the normal menstrual cycle. Therefore, the vast amount of literature on this subject is reviewed and a critical appraisal of the most widespread hypotheses if offered. The strikingly low body mass which frequently accompanies exercise-related menstrual irregularities (ERMI) has led some authors to develop a hypothesis which postulates that a critical percentage of body fat is essential to trigger normal menstruation. The relevance of any reference to anorexia nervosa to support this view lacks consistency: female athletes differ in many ways from patients with anorexia nervosa, not least in their excellent physical status which is essential to deliver first-class performances. ERMI is not identical to the so-called female athlete triad, a complicated pathology that involves ERMI, premature osteoporosis and disordered eating. ERMI itself does not seem to have any substantial pathological effects as long as attention is paid to preventing osteoporosis or stress fractures which may result from prolonged hypo-estrogenaemia. In the female athlete with ERMI who wishes to conceive, the accompanying subfertility may necessitate a response other than a prompt reduction in training intensity, as this is hardly a first choice for any top athlete. During recent years, a number of prospective studies have greatly contributed to our understanding of the complexity of the mechanisms involved in ERMI. Older hypotheses, such as those considering hyperprolactinaemia as the cornerstone of ERMI, have now been firmly rejected. The present hypotheses emphasise the importance of caloric deficiency and limited energy availability, although they still fail to identify the actual mechanism that causes ERMI. There is, however, evidence that ERMI is produced by a disturbance of the hypothalamic gonadotrophin-releasing hormone oscillator. This disturbance is caused by either an insufficient estrogen or progesterone feedback or by an imbalance of local opioid peptide and catecholamine activities mediated by gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), corticotrophin-releasing hormone and insulin-like growth factor-1. More recent experiments have also linked ERMI with changes in steroid metabolism, in particular, an increasing activity of catecholestrogens possibly leading to enhanced intracerebral noradrenaline (norepinephrine) levels that may interfere with normal gonadotrophin release. This article demonstrates that the outcome of the many studies of ERMI is characterised by much controversy and numerous methodological flaws. The importance and complexity of some recent findings necessitate a comprehensive study which links older and newer findings within a critical perspective.     

Sex differences in self-disclosure: A meta-analysis.

Conducted a meta-analysis of 205 studies involving 23,702 Ss to determine whether there are sex differences in self-disclosure. Across these studies, women disclosed slightly more than men (d?=?18). This effect size was not homogeneous across studies. Several moderator variables were found. Sex of target and the interaction effect of relationship to target and measure of self-disclosure moderated the effect of sex on self-disclosure. Sex differences in self-disclosure were significantly greater to female and same-sex partners than to opposite-sex or male partners. When the target had a relationship with the discloser (i.e., friend, parent, or spouse), women disclosed more than men regardless of whether self-disclosure was measured by self-report or observation. When the target was a stranger, men reported that they disclosed similarly to women; however, studies using observational measures of self-disclosure found that women disclosed more than men. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An examination of the Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act as applied to juveniles: Evaluating the ability to predict sexual recidivism.

The recently enacted Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act will expand and standardize the registration of adolescent sex offenders. To evaluate the effectiveness of this and similar legislation, the authors assessed 91 juvenile males who had been adjudicated for a sexual felony offense and 174 juvenile males who had no history of sexual offending with several risk measures. On admission to treatment, all participants were assessed with the Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL:YV; A. E. Forth, D. Kosson, & R. D. Hare, 2003). The Juvenile Sex Offender Assessment Protocol-II (J-SOAP-II; R. A. Prentky & S. Righthand, 2003), 3 state-developed risk protocols (from Wisconsin, Texas, and New Jersey), and the tier designation embedded in the federal Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act of 2006 (SORNA) were coded from the sex offender participants' records. Participants were followed for an average of 71.6 months (SD = 18.1 months) to determine charges for general, violent, and sexual offenses. Results showed inconsistencies in risk designations between the J-SOAP-II, SORNA tier, and state risk measures, and none, except for the PCL:YV, significantly predicted new general, violent, or sexual offense charges. Policy and legal implications concerning the assessment of adolescent sex offenders are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in impulsivity: A meta-analysis.

Men are overrepresented in socially problematic behaviors, such as aggression and criminal behavior, which have been linked to impulsivity. Our review of impulsivity is organized around the tripartite theoretical distinction between reward hypersensitivity, punishment hyposensitivity, and inadequate effortful control. Drawing on evolutionary, criminological, developmental, and personality theories, we predicted that sex differences would be most pronounced in risky activities with men demonstrating greater sensation seeking, greater reward sensitivity, and lower punishment sensitivity. We predicted a small female advantage in effortful control. We analyzed 741 effect sizes from 277 studies, including psychometric and behavioral measures. Women were consistently more punishment sensitive (d = ?0.33), but men did not show greater reward sensitivity (d = 0.01). Men showed significantly higher sensation seeking on questionnaire measures (d = 0.41) and on a behavioral risk-taking task (d = 0.36). Questionnaire measures of deficits in effortful control showed a very modest effect size in the male direction (d = 0.08). Sex differences were not found on delay discounting or executive function tasks. The results indicate a stronger sex difference in motivational rather than effortful or executive forms of behavior control. Specifically, they support evolutionary and biological theories of risk taking predicated on sex differences in punishment sensitivity. A clearer understanding of sex differences in impulsivity depends upon recognizing important distinctions between sensation seeking and impulsivity, between executive and effortful forms of control, and between impulsivity as a deficit and as a trait. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)