Concreteness and semantic repetition effects in free recall: Evidence for dual-coding theory.

Tested the prediction of A. Paivio's (1971, 1976) dual-coding model, which states that semantic-repetition effects will be obtained for concrete but not abstract words. Dual-coding theory also asserts that semantic equivalents are encoded as a combination of separate verbal representations for all words and common imaginal representations for concrete equivalents. 96 undergraduates recalled a list that contained no-repetition, synonym-repetition, and identical-repetition items, half of which were concrete and half of which were abstract. Results show that, for concrete words, recall of synonym- and identical-repetition items did not differ significantly, and both conditions facilitated recall relative to no-repetition items. For abstract words, however, recall of synonym- and no-repetition items did not differ significantly, whereas identical-repetition items facilitated recall relative to both of these conditions. Findings support the prediction and demonstrate the importance of concreteness in semantic-repetition effects. (French abstract) (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sources of recency effects in free recall.

Discusses evidence casting doubt on the primary-memory account of the recency effect in recall and reviews an alternate account that attributes recency to the use of temporal or contextual cues. The discussion is presented in the paradigm of free recall. The recency effect refers to the fact that when people memorize a list of words, they tend to recall items at the end of the list more often than those in the middle. Recency effects have often been attributed to output from primary memory, a short-term memory buffer system. Evidence that recency effects can be found in the absence of primary memory (in conditions of concurrent distraction, multicategory lists, interactions of other independent variables with serial position, negative recency effects, and auditory recency) is reviewed. It is concluded that primary-memory theories are no longer adequate accounts for the recency effect. A temporal-contextual theory of the recency effect is discussed as a plausible alternative account, although these accounts are not fully developed or tested. (108 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Unmixing effects of spacing on free recall.

In 3 unmixed-list free-recall experiments, total recall was as high for lists that contained massed repetitions as for those containing spaced repetitions. This finding and differences between spaced and massed lists in the pattern of recall (notably serial position differences) indicate that displaced rehearsal (review of earlier list items) was more prevalent during study of the massed lists. These results imply that displaced rehearsal has a large role in producing the free-recall advantage typically observed for spaced compared with massed items in mixed lists and that unmixed-list designs generally are to be preferred for spacing experiments. They also imply that intentional free-recall experiments are not instructive concerning effects of spaced vs massed study, because rehearsal strategies for free recall result in the spaced study of massed items. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contextual variability and serial position effects in free recall.

In immediate free recall, words recalled successively tend to come from nearby serial positions. M. J. Kahana (see record 1996-93836-009) documented this effect and showed that this tendency, which the authors refer to as the lag recency effect, is well described by a variant of the search of associative memory (SAM) model (J. G. W. Raaijmakers & R. M. Shiffrin, 1980, 1981). In 2 experiments, participants performed immediate, delayed, and continuous distractor free recall under conditions designed to minimize rehearsal. The lag recency effect, previously observed in immediate free recall, was also observed in delayed and continuous distractor free recall. Although two-store memory models, such as SAM, readily account for the end-of-list recency effect in immediate free recall, and its attenuation in delayed free recall, these models fail to account for the long-term recency effect. By means of analytic simulations, the authors show that both the end of list recency effect and the lag recency effect, across all distractor conditions, can be explained by a single-store model in which context, retrieved with each recalled item, serves as a cue for subsequent recalls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Isolation effects, free recall, and organization.

Studied the influence of isolated words upon free recall and clustering of categorized lists. For Exp. I with 104 undergraduates, the list contained 10 words from each of 4 conceptual categories and the category names, and for Exp. II with 96 Ss, 11 members of 4 categories and no names. Category members were presented in blocked or random order for 4 presentation-recall periods. Isolation effects occurred for random presentation with either category names or members as isolates. The superior recall of isolates was at the expense of other words in the list. Clustering of the categories with an isolate or for the over-all list was not affected by isolates, indicating that they did not influence the organization of the lists. Recall and clustering with block presentation were superior to random presentation. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An ecological theory of expertise effects in memory recall.

Previous research has shown a significant correlation between domain expertise and memory recall performance after a very brief exposure time. Despite the large number of such studies, several findings in the literature have no satisfactory theoretical explanation. A novel theory based on an ecological approach is proposed to explain these results. This constraint attunement hypothesis provides a framework for identifying and representing the various levels of goal-relevant constraint in a domain. The theory predicts that there will be a memory expertise advantage in cases in which experts are attuned to the goal-relevant constraints in the material to be recalled and that the more constraint available, the greater the expertise advantage can be. The theory explains a number of diverse empirical findings in the literature in a coherent, unique, and parsimonious fashion and suggests a number of promising issues for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age dissociates recency and lag recency effects in free recall.

The temporal relations among word-list items exert a powerful influence on episodic memory retrieval. Two experiments were conducted with younger and older adults in which the age-related recall deficit was examined by using a decomposition method to the serial position curve, partitioning performance into (a) the probability of first recall, illustrating the recency effect, and (b) the conditional response probability, illustrating the lag recency effect (M. W. Howard & M. J. Kahana, 1999). Although the older adults initiated recall in the same manner in both immediate and delayed free recall, temporal proximity of study items (contiguity) exerted a much weaker influence on recall transitions in older adults. This finding suggests that an associative deficit may be an important contributor to older adults' well-known impairment in free recall. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toward a theory of dream recall.

Examines evidence for 3 hypotheses of dream recall in studies of variables characteristic of presleep, sleep, and postsleep periods. Neither correlational nor experimental data show consistent support for the hypothesis that repression affects dream recall. Salience and interference concepts are strongly supported and if taken together with cognitive and motivational variables, suggest a promising model for dream recall based on interactions among situational, organismic, and individual difference factors. (117 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reverse-interference effect in free recall.

D. J. Burns (1989) demonstrated that free recall of second-list response terms was better in an interference (A–B, A–C) condition than in a control (D–B, A–C) condition. This reversal of the traditional interference effect was referred to as the reverse-interference effect. Results from Experiments 2–4 in this article discounted several possible explanations of the reverse-interference effect, and the results from Experiments 5–7 supported a stimulus accessibility account of the reverse-interference effect. That is, when asked for free recall of the response terms, participants covertly retrieved stimulus terms to serve as cues for the responses. The reverse-interference effect reflects the greater accessibility of stimulus terms in the interference condition than in the control condition (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The spacing effect, free recall, and two-process theory: A closer look.

Two experiments used procedures similar to those used by R. L. Greene (see record 1989-24870-001) to test the 2-process theory of the spacing effect and, in particular, the contextual-variability subtheory that applies to free-recall performance. Experiment 1 obtained a spacing effect in free recall following intentional learning but not following incidental learning, contrary to a previous result supporting the 2-process theory. Experiment 2 replicated the incidental-learning results when a slow presentation rate was used. However, with a faster presentation rate, a spacing effect was obtained, and performance exceeded that of the slow-presentation-rate condition at the longest tag. Neither the contextual-variability subtheory of 2-process theory nor an alternative deficient-processing hypothesis was able to account for all of the data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Using overt rehearsals to explain word frequency effects in free recall.

Three experiments examined the word frequency effect in free recall using the overt rehearsal methodology. Experiment 1 showed that lists of exclusively high-frequency (HF) words were better recalled, were rehearsed more, and were rehearsed to more recent serial positions than low-frequency (LF) words. A small HF advantage remained even when these 2 variables were equated. Experiment 2 showed that all these effect, were much reduced with mixed lists containing both HF and LF words. Experiment 3 compared pure and mixed lists in a within-subject design and confirmed the findings of Experiments 1 and 2. It is argued that number of rehearsals, recency of rehearsals, and strength of interitem association cause the word frequency effect in free recall. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Bilingual dual-coding theory and semantic repetition effects on recall.

A bilingual version of dual-coding theory was tested with French-English bilinguals who free recalled lists of concrete and abstract words repeated at different interitem lags. Repetitions involved the same words, translation equivalents, or same-language synonyms. The results extended previous findings and generally supported predictions from dual-coding theory and the independence storage hypothesis of bilingual memory: (a) Relative to single words, semantic repetitions (translations and synonyms) had additive effects on type recall even at short lags, whereas identical repetitions were less than additive at zero lag; (b) recall of identical repetitions increased more with lag than recall of semantic repetitions, so that differences between these conditions were diminished and sometimes reversed; (c) semantic repetition effects were weaker for synonyms than for translations, especially for abstract words; and (d) intrusion errors and pair recall were higher for translations than for synonyms, especially for concrete words at long lags. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clustering and organization in free recall.

Evaluated various indexes developed to measure clustering and subjective organization and presents 2 intercorrelation matrices among clustering measures and the number of words recalled. The existence of a large negative bias in the correlation between the ratio of repetition measure and theoretical recall was demonstrated. Various issues which have developed from the study of organization in free recall are discussed. (3 p. ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of word frequency on recency effects in directed free recall.

Leading theoretical explanations of recency effects are designed to explain the reported absence of a word frequency effect on recall of words from recency serial positions. The present study used a directed free-recall procedure (J. I. Dalezman, 1976) and manipulated the frequency composition of the word lists (pure and mixed). Overall, with pure lists, a greater proportion of high-frequency (HF) words were recalled than low-frequency (LF) words, and with mixed lists, a greater proportion of LF words were recalled than HF words. Of importance, this recall advantage for one frequency over the other as a function of list composition was evident across the last three serial positions, indicating an influence of word frequency on recency effects that is dependent on the frequency composition of the lists. These results challenge one of the major assumptions on which several theories of recency effects have been based. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Examining the relationship between free recall and immediate serial recall: The effects of list length and output order.

In 4 experiments, participants were presented with lists of between 1 and 15 words for tests of immediate memory. For all tasks, participants tended to initiate recall with the first word on the list for short lists. As the list length was increased, so there was a decreased tendency to start with the first list item; and, when free to do so, participants showed an increased tendency to start with one of the last 4 list items. In all tasks, the start position strongly influenced the shape of the resultant serial position curves: When recall started at Serial Position 1, elevated recall of early list items was observed; when recall started toward the end of the list, there were extended recency effects. These results occurred under immediate free recall (IFR) and different variants of immediate serial recall (ISR) and reconstruction of order (RoO) tasks. We argue that these findings have implications for the relationship between IFR and ISR and between rehearsal and recall. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of subject-generated and experimenter-provided memory tags on free recall.

64 children from Grades 2 and 5 participated in a recall task. There were 4 instructional conditions distinguished by the type of retrieval cue: sign, subcategory, supracategory, and control. The task required that the Ss image and recall items from 6 successively presented sets of categorized pictorial stimuli. These categories, however, were not mentioned; instead, a sign representing an activity for each set was emphasized as the retrieval cue. Significant effects of grade and of condition, favoring the subcategory condition, were determined by ANOVA. The results, based upon total recall as well as items-per-category and category recall, are discussed in relation to E. Tulving and M. J. Watkins's (see record 1975-26816-001) encoding specificity principle, A. Paivio's (1971) 2-process theory of memory, and F. I. Craik and R. S. Lockhart's (see record 1973-20189-001) levels-of-processing approach to memory. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of dieting on eating behavior: A three-factor model.

Reviews and critiques restraint theory and develops a 3-factor model of dieting behavior. The factors (frequency of dieting and overeating, current dieting, and weight suppression) are embedded within a 3-dimensional grid that also considers mechanisms mediating the effects of dieting and the influence of weight status. The eating behavior exhibited by restrained eaters stems from their frequent dieting and overeating in the past rather than from their current state of dietary or cognitive restraint. Evidence is reviewed indicating that current dieting and weight suppression have different effects on eating than does restraint. The 3-factor model is used to reinterpret findings consistent with restraint theory and to explain findings inconsistent with restraint theory. Finally, clinical and research implications of the 3-factor model are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mnemonic organization and free recall in schizophrenia.

Investigated word-storage structure and processes of organization and retrieval in 17 young schizophrenics (mean age 26.5 yrs) and 13 normal Ss (mean age 25.7 yrs). Ss were required to establish a stable organization of 25 unrelated words through repeated, self-paced sortings into self-determined categories. Subsequently, they were asked for free recall of the words. The schizophrenics required significantly more trials to complete the sorting task, but once this was achieved they recalled as many words in equally regular order as the normals did. The groups did not differ in regard to organizational structure in the sortings as assessed by hierarchical structure analysis. It is concluded that a schizophrenic deficit of mnemonic organization is indicated, possibly due to difficulties in maintaining a stable system of categories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Serial organization and prior free recall.

Assessed serial recall and organization of a list after different levels of prior free-recall learning with the same list. Performance was expected to be impaired as a direct function of amount of free recall because of inappropriate organizational units formed during free recall. Recall on serial trials following 15 free-recall trials was inferior to 5 or 10 prior free-recall trials. 4 groups of 24 Ss each were tested. Serial organization on the 1st serial trial was inferior if prior free recall occurred, but did not vary with the amount of free recall. These results, and those of part-whole and whole-part free-recall transfer studies, were interpreted by a component analysis of free recall, including response learning/unlearning and organizational learning/unlearning. (16 ref.) (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age differences in retrieval: Further support for the resource-reduction hypothesis.

Age differences in processing resources seem salient to age-related declines in secondary (or "recent") memory. Community-dwelling adults (N?=?90, ages 30–80) completed 4 memory tests: Wechsler Memory Scale—Revised (WMS-R), Logical Memory (LM), Cowboy Story (CS), WMS-R Visual Reproductions (VR), and Extended Complex Figure Test (ECFT; Fastenau, in press). Two space-capacity measures (WMS-R Digit Span and Visual Memory Span) and 4 processing speed measures (cancellation and mental-tracking tasks) assessed processing resources. A statistical control procedure was used to isolate retrieval efficiency and measure contributions of age and processing resources to retrieval. A negative relationship between age and retrieval efficiency emerged on all measures (p?