Properties of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aspergillus subolivaceus</Emphasis> free and immobilized dextranase

Aspergillus subolivaceus dextranase is immobilized on several carriers by entrapment and covalent binding with cross-linking. Dextranase immobilized on BSA with a cross-linking agent shows the highest activity and considerable immobilization yield (66.7%). The optimum pH of the immobilized enzyme is shifted to pH 6.0 as compared with the free enzyme (pH 5.5). The optimum temperature of the reaction is resulted at 60 °C for both free and immobilized enzyme. Thermal and pH stability are significantly improved by the immobilization process. The calculated K _m of the immobilized dextranase (14.24 mg mL⁻¹) is higher than that of the free dextranase (11.47 mg mL⁻¹), while V _max of the immobilized enzyme (2.80 U μg protein⁻¹) is lower than that of the free dextranase (11.75 U μg protein⁻¹). The immobilized enzyme was able to retain 76% of the initial catalytic activity after 5.0 cycles.     

Properties of thermostable extracellular FOS-producing fructofuranosidase from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cryptococcus</Emphasis> sp.

The present work was devoted to investigations concerning the fructooligosaccharide producing activity of Cryptococcus sp. LEB-V2 (Laboratory of Bioprocess Engineering, Unicamp, Brazil) and its extracellular fructofuranosidase. After cell separation, the enzyme was purified by ethanol precipitation and anion exchange chromatography. The enzyme showed both fructofuranosidase (FA) and fructosyl transferase (FTA) activity. With sucrose as substrate, the data failed to fit the Michaelis–Menten behaviour, showing a substrate inhibitory model. The K _m, K _i and v _max values were shown to be 64 mM, 3 M and 159.6 μmol mL⁻¹ min⁻¹ for FA and 131 mM, 1.6 M and 377.8 μmol mL⁻¹ min⁻¹ for FTA, respectively. The optimum pH and temperature were found to be around 4.0 and 65 °C, while the best stability was achieved at pH 4.5 and temperatures below 60 °C, for both the FA and FTA. Despite the strong FA activity, the high transfructosylating activity allowed for good FOS production from sucrose (35% yield).     

Antioxidant capacity and total phenolics of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cyphostemma digitatum</Emphasis> before and after processing: use of different assays

In the framework of standardisation of new healthy food sources, this paper aimed to study the total phenolics and the antioxidant power of Cyphostemma digitatum (Vitaceae) in water and ethanol extracts, using 96-well micro plates with BMG FLUOstar Optima micro plate reader. Total phenolics by Folin–Ciocalteu method in the water extracts were significantly lower after processing, decreasing from 1.41 ± 0.06 g GAE/100 g in the raw leaves to 0.80 ± 0.08 g GAE/100 g in the processed sample; the ethanol extract revealed the same trend with higher values, decreasing from 1.95 ± 0.03 to 1.56 ± 0.12 g GAE/100 g. The antioxidant capacity was elucidated by four methods: TEAC, DPPH, FRAP and ORAC. No or very weak correlations were found between antioxidant assays and total phenolics; this confirms that the antioxidant capacity could be attributed to other molecules. The ORAC assay proved to be more powerful than the other assays; it showed 103.3 ± 2.5 mmol/100 g Trolox equivalents in the raw leaves ethanol extract and 91.9 ± 3.0 mmol/100 g in the processed sample. ORAC assay showed the opposite for the water extract where the antioxidant capacity increased from 16.7 ± 0.2 to 41.7 ± 2.7 mmol/100 g Trolox equivalents after processing, which could be attributed to new water-soluble compounds generated in the consumed form.     

Estrogenic effects of various extracts from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chamdanggui</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Angelica gigas</Emphasis> Nakai) and <Emphasis Type="Italic">sogdan</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phlomis umbrosa</Emphasis> Turcz)

The various extracts from chamdanggui (Angelica gigas Nakai) and sogdan (Phlomis umbrosa Turcz) were evaluated for estrogenic activity and characterized according to HPLC profile. Chamdanggui and sogdan were individually extracted with 4 solvents (hot water, 70% ethanol, n-butanol, and dichloromethane) of differing polarities. Estrogenic activity was determined by E-screen using an estrogen-dependent MCF-7 BUS cell. Although almost all extracts showed estrogenic effects in a concentrationdependent manner, the hot water extract from chamdanggui (250 μg/mL) had the higher effect (138%). Among 90 fractions using HPLC separation of the hot water extract from chamdanggui, fraction 21 and 28 produced the highest estrogenic effects of 178 and 163% at 10 μg/mL, respectively. The results imply that the hot water extract from chamdanggui could be useful as an alternative hormone replacement therapy.     

Partial Purification and Characterization of Extracellular Fructofuranosidase with Transfructosylating Activity from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Candida</Emphasis> sp.

The present work was carried out with the aim to investigate some properties of an extracellular fructofuranosidase enzyme, with high transfructosylating activity, from Candida sp. LEB-I3 (Laboratory of Bioprocess Engineering, Unicamp, Brazil). The enzyme was produced through fermentation, and after cell separation from the fermented medium, the enzyme was concentrated by ethanol precipitation and than purified by anion exchange chromatography. The enzyme exhibited both fructofuranosidase (FA) and fructosyltransferase (FTA) activities on a low and high sucrose concentration. With sucrose as the substrate, the data fitted the Michaellis–Menten model for FA, showing rather a substrate inhibitory shape for fructosyltransferase activity. The K _m and v _max values were shown to be 13.4 g L⁻¹ and 21.0 μmol mL⁻¹ min⁻¹ and 25.5 g L⁻¹ and 52.5 μmol mL⁻¹ min⁻¹ for FA and FTA activities, respectively. FTA presented an inhibitory factor K _i of 729.8 g L⁻¹. The optimum conditions for FA activity were found to be pH 3.25–3.5 and temperatures around 69 °C, while for FTA, the optimum condition were 65 °C (±2 °C) and pH 4.00 (±0.25). Both activities were very stable at temperatures below 60 °C, while for FA, the best stability occurred at pH 5.0 and for FTA at pH  4.5–5.0. Despite the strong fructofuranosidase activity, causing hydrolysis of the fructooligosaccharides (FOS), the high transfructosilating activity allows a high FOS production from sucrose (44%).     

A new environmentally friendly method for astaxanthin extraction from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous</Emphasis>

Few environmentally friendly solvents are available to extract food-grade astaxanthin. In this paper, some environmentally friendly solvents, such as lactic acid, ethyl lactate, and ethanol, were employed in cell disruption and astaxanthin extraction from Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous. The extraction procedure was optimized, validated and compared with other conventional extraction techniques. This method gave the best result due to the highest extraction efficiency within short extraction time. The optimum extraction conditions were as follows: the yeast cell wall was disrupted by lactic acid at 65° C for 1 h and then extracted with ethyl lactate:ethanol (1:1, v/v) for 0.5 h. It was proved that the extraction efficiency was enhanced by the addition of the natural antioxidant α-tocopherol. This new method showed low chemical toxicity and gave high extraction efficiency, which had good prospects for mass production at the industrial scale.     

Ultrasonically Assisted Extraction of Rutin from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Artemisia selengensis</Emphasis> Turcz: Comparison with Conventional Extraction Techniques

Ultrasonically assisted extraction (UAE) followed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis method for the fast extraction and determination of rutin in Artemisia selengensis Turcz has been developed. Artemisia selengensis Turcz has been used as food and herbal medicine for thousands of years in China. Rutin is one of the main active ingredients of this plant. The extraction of rutin from Artemisia selengensis Turcz was investigated by UAE. Special emphasis has been given to optimize the extraction conditions which were those with 90:10 (v/v) methanol–ethanol as solvent, 30:1 liquid–solid ratio, and 40 min extraction time. In order to show the superiority of UAE, other extractions were investigated, including microwave-assisted extraction, reflux extraction, and marinated extraction. The results showed that UAE was most suitable for the extraction of rutin in Artemisia selengensis Turcz because of its high extraction efficiency. Reversed phase-HPLC with ultraviolet detection was employed for the analysis of rutin in Artemisia selengensis Turcz. Under the optimum conditions, the calibration curve for the analyte was linear in the range of 0.34–20.7 μg mL⁻¹. The mean recovery of rutin was 100.77%, and its relative standard deviation was 0.37% (n = 5). Three kinds of Artemisia selengensis Turcz from different habitats were investigated. The total content of rutin was 9.90, 6.23, 5.56 mg g⁻¹, respectively.     

Extracts of plant cell cultures of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lavandula vera</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rosa damascena</Emphasis> as sources of phenolic antioxidants for use in foods

Ethanolic extracts of plant cell cultures of lavender (Lavandula vera) and rose (Rosa damascena) have been examined as potential food antioxidants. The L. vera cell extract quenched the radicals Fremy’s salt, DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical), and ABTS^·+ (2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic) radical) more efficiently than the R. damascena extract. Also the L. vera extract inhibited lipid oxidation in a methyl linoleate emulsion more efficiently than the R. damascena extract. However, the L. vera extract had a prooxidative effect on the iron-based Fenton reaction in an aqueous model system. A similar effect was observed for pure rosmarinic acid, but not for the R. damascena extract. The addition of L. vera extract to minced chicken meat reduced lipid oxidation (measured as thiobarbituric acid reactive species) and the loss of α-tocopherol during cold storage after the meat was cooked. This suggests the antioxidative properties of L. vera extracts dominate in a real food system.     

Thermal inactivation kinetics of quality-related enzymes in cauliflower (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Brassica oleracea</Emphasis> var. <Emphasis Type="Italic">botrytis</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Bold">)</Emphasis>

Thermal inactivation of quality-related enzymes in both cauliflower crude enzyme extracts and fresh tissue samples was studied in temperature range 50–100 °C. For crude enzyme extracts, several parameters, reaction rate constants (k) and activation energy (E _a) as well as decimal reduction time (D) and (z) values, were used to characterize the thermal stability. The rates of inactivation were found to follow first-order inactivation kinetics. Activation energies varied between 101.18 and 208.42 kJ mol⁻¹ with z values of 10.59–24.09 °C. The examined kinetics indicated that lipoxygenase was the most heat resistant followed by peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, pectin methyl esterase and ascorbic acid oxidase. Furthermore, the obtained results from the blanched fresh tissues indicated that inactivation of lipoxygenase secured disappearing of any other enzyme activities. Therefore, this study recommends using lipoxygenase as an indicator enzyme to optimize the thermal treatments of cauliflower products.     

Antioxidant activity of the differentially processed seeds of Jack bean (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Canavalia ensiformis</Emphasis> L. DC)

Antioxidant activity of 70% acetone extracts of raw and processed seeds of Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis L. DC) was evaluated by various in vitro antioxidant assays, including total antioxidant, free radical scavenging, reducing power, metal ion chelating, β-carotene/linoleic acid bleaching, and antihemolytic activities. The total phenolics and tannin contents were higher in the extract of seeds processed by autoclaving with 1% ash solution (3.2 and 1.6 g/100 g extract, respectively). In general, all the extracts of processed seeds exhibited higher activity in various antioxidant systems, when compared to raw seeds but significant differences were noticed between processing methods. The extract of seeds autoclaved with 1% sugar solution showed higher DPPH radical scavenging activity (IC₅₀ 10.6 mg/mL). Interestingly, the extract of dry heated seeds registered higher inhibition of hemolysis (76.1%) compared to standards butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) (66.2%) and α-tocopherol (59.3%) at the concentration of 500 μg/mL.     

Antioxidant activities in vitro of ethanol extract from brown seaweed <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sargassum pallidum</Emphasis>

The crude extract (CE) was obtained by extracting the powder of Sargassum pallidum with a solution of 70% ethanol. Then, CE dissolved in distilled water was fractionated with chloroform (Cf), ethyl acetate (EtOAc), and n-butanol (n-BuOH), respectively, affording four fractions of Cf, EtOAc, n-BuOH and aqueous. First, the contents of total polyphenols, vitamin C (V_C) and vitamin E (V_E) in CE and its four fractions were determined. As results, the contents of total polyphenols in CE and its fractions decreased in the following order: aqueous fraction > n-BuOH fraction > EtOAc fraction > CE > Cf fraction. The aqueous fraction had significantly higher V_C content (1.82%) compared with CE and fractions of Cf, EtOAc, and n-BuOH (P < 0.05). The contents of V_E in CE and its fractions were all in low level compared with the total polyphenol content and V_C content. Second, the antioxidant activities in vitro of CE and its four fractions were evaluated. Among all the fractions, EtOAc fraction exhibited the highest total antioxidant activity (0.52 μmol FeSO₄ equivalent/mg extract), while fractions of EtOAc and n-BuOH exhibited the highest 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity and capacity of chelating iron ions, respectively. In addition, a higher content of total polyphenols (52.08 mg chlorogenic acid equivalent/g extract) and reducing power (0.505 at A₇₀₀) for aqueous fraction were noticed. Finally, it was found that the extracts of S. pallidum contained large amounts of phlorotannin dimers and trimer based on the analytical results of ultra high performance liquid chromatography–mass spectroscopy. The results suggest that S. pallidum can be a good source of natural antioxidant.     

ITS-RFLP characterization of black <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aspergillus</Emphasis> isolates responsible for ochratoxin A contamination in cocoa beans

In the present study, ochratoxigenic mycobiota in cocoa beans was identified at species level by digestion of the ITS products using the endonucleases HhaI, NlaIII and RsaI. Of the 132 isolates of Aspergillus section Nigri collected from cocoa beans, 89 were identified as A. tubingensis, 27 as A. niger, 10 as A. tubingensis-like and 6 as A. carbonarius. No variation was observed between RFLP patterns (C, N, T1 and T2) described previously for grape isolates and those of the cocoa isolates analysed. With respect to OTA-producing fungi, a high percentage of black aspergilli (50.7%) was able to produce OTA. Additionally, most of the OTA-producing isolates were of moderate toxigenicity, producing amounts of OTA from 10 μg g⁻¹ to 100 μg g⁻¹. Percentages of OTA-producing isolates in the A. niger aggregate were higher than in other substrates, ranging from 30% to 51.7%. Furthermore, the detected levels of OTA production in the A. niger aggregate, particularly in A. tubingensis species was higher than in A. carbonarius, ranging from 0.7 μg g⁻¹ to 120 μg g⁻¹ (mean 24.55 μg g⁻¹). Due to the high occurrence, percentage of ocratoxigenic isolates and their ability to produce OTA, isolates belonging to the A. niger aggregate could be considered as the main cause of OTA contamination in cocoa beans used for manufacturing cocoa products.     

Antioxidant and tyrosinase inhibitory activities of different parts of guava (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Psidium guajava</Emphasis> L.)

The antioxidant and the tyrosinase inhibitory activities of 4 different solvents (acetone, ethanol, methanol, and water) for preparation of extracts from guava (branch, fruit, leaf, and seed) were evaluated by measuring total phenolic contents (TPC), DPPH radical scavenging activity, ABTS radical scavenging activity, reducing power (RP), and tyrosinase inhibitory activity. The extracts of branch and leaf showed relatively higher antioxidant properties than those of fruit and seed. The highest TPC (141.28 mg/g gallic acid equivalents), DPPH radical scavenging activity (IC₅₀=34.01 μg/mL), ABTS radical scavenging activity (IC₅₀=3.23 μg/mL), and RP (IC₅₀= 75.63 μg/mL) were found in acetone extract of leaf, while water extract of seed had the lowest antioxidant activity. The tyrosinase inhibitory activity of ethanol extract from guava leaf was 69.56%, which was the highest activity among the extracts. These results indicate that useful bioactive substances exist in the guava branch as well as leaf extracts.     

In vivo study of antiallergenicity of ethanol extracts from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sargassum tenerrimum</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sargassum cervicorne</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sargassum graminifolium turn</Emphasis>

Food allergy has becoming the serious threat in the world for which the search of an effective anti-allergic drug is the demand of time. Keeping in view of the potentiality of seaweeds, the ethanol extracts from Sargassum tenerrimum (ST), Sargassum cervicorne (SC), and Sargassum graminifolium turn (SG) have been studied in vivo for its antiallergenicity through passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) and active cutaneous anaphylaxis (ACA) in female BALB/c mice. Intraperitoneal administration of these ethanol extracts inhibit mouse PCA and ACA in a dose-dependent manner using ovalbumin (OVA) and shrimp allergen as triggering agents to induce allergenicity over mice. The extract of ST containing phlorotannin has been found most active over the suppression of PCA triggered by OVA and shrimp with IC₅₀ values of 25.64 and 40.98 mg/kg, respectively and an efficacy comparable to that of an anti-allergic drug disodiumcromoglycate. Similarly, ST inhibits ACA triggered by ova and shrimp allergen in the mouse, with 50% suppression at 25.5 and 43.53 mg/kg, respectively. The results presented here show that these extracts are active on the studied models among which ethanol extract of ST was the most potent, leading toward the promising development of a new class of anti-allergic drugs.     

Antibacterial and antioxidant properties of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ramulus Cinnamomi</Emphasis> using supercritical CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> extraction

In this study, crude extracts of Ramulus Cinnamomi from supercritical carbon dioxide under various extraction conditions were examined for their antioxidant and antibacterial activity. The extractions were conducted in the range of 4,000–6,000 psi and 40–50 °C, and the solvent to feed ratio of the extraction was 30. The antibacterial activity was tested on the clinical drug-resistant strains, including 27 Acinetobacter baumannii, 20 Pseudomonas aeruginosa and 2 Staphylococcus aureus isolates by the disk diffusion method. The bioassay results indicated that Ramulus Cinnamomi showed obvious antimicrobial activity against the tested strains. This study also found that increasing the temperature and pressure would increase the yield of the supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), even though the best extraction conditions for antibacterial activity were found to be high pressure and low temperature. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined on the crude extract of Ramulus Cinnamomi, indicating that the crude extracts from supercritical extraction showed better antibacterial activity than those obtained by ethanol extraction. Based on the spectrophotometer and bioassay determination, the antimicrobial constituent was identified to be cinnamaldehyde. Time-kill kinetics and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were employed to monitor the survival characteristics and the changes in morphologies, respectively, of the test microorganisms in the presence of herbal extracts. Moreover, antioxidant activity was evaluated by scavenging of the free radical DPPH. Extracts of Ramulus Cinnamomi provided 50% inhibition at 2 mg/ml concentration. This study will provide valuable information for extraction of the natural bioactive component, cinnamaldehyde, from Ramulus Cinnamomi by supercritical extraction.     

Co-production of Lactic Acid and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lactobacillus rhamnosus</Emphasis> Cells from Whey Permeate with Nutrient Supplements

Lactic acid and cell production from whey permeate by Lactobacillus rhamnosus with different nutrient supplements were investigated in this study. Yeast extract was identified as the most effective nutrient affecting lactic acid production. Increase in inoculum size from 0.05% to 1% (v/v) resulted in a substantial increase in lactic acid productivity from 0.66 to 0.83 g L⁻¹ h⁻¹ (P < 0.001). The optimal temperature for lactic acid production was 37 °C, while the highest cell production was obtained at 42 °C. When whey permeate and yeast extract concentrations were 6.8% (w/v) and 3 g L⁻¹, respectively, lactic acid productivity reached 0.85 g L⁻¹ h⁻¹ after 48-h cultivation, which is 3.40 times of those without nutrient supplements.     

Influence of Different Extraction Media on Phenolic Contents and Antioxidant Capacity of Defatted Dabai (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Canarium odontophyllum</Emphasis>) Fruit

Dabai (Canarium odontophyllum) is a potential “functional fruit”. Future commercialization of dabai fat as healthy oil may result in the accumulation of defatted dabai as a by-product. This study was carried out to determine the total phenolics and antioxidant capacity of defatted dabai parts as a new source of functional food and nutraceutical ingredient. In this study, defatted dabai parts were extracted using different extraction media (methanol, ethanol, ethyl acetate, acetone, and water) and analyzed for total phenolics, total flavonoids, total anthocyanins, and antioxidant capacity (ABTS⁺ radical scavenging and ferric-reducing antioxidant power assays) using spectrophotometric and high-performance liquid chromatography methods. Major phenolics in defatted dabai peel extracted using methanol were catechin and epigallocatechin while in water extract, major phenolic acid was ellagic acid. Defatted dabai peel also had higher anthocyanidin content than its pulp. The peel of a defatted dabai fruit extracted using methanol contained a high total phenolics and Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC). Ethyl acetate extract of defatted dabai parts had the least phenolics compared in ethanol and acetone extracts. Higher total phenolics and TEAC values were observed in water extract of a defatted dabai peel than ethanol, acetone, and ethyl acetate extracts. Hence, methanol extract of a defatted dabai peel could probably be used as a natural antioxidant.     

Flavonols of lotus (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Nelumbo nucifera,</Emphasis> Gaertn.) seed epicarp and their antioxidant potential

Large amounts of fresh seed epicarp of Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (FSENN) are discarded in China without any utilization. The aim of this study was to identify the flavonols found in a fraction of an extract of FSENN, and to measure their levels and investigate antioxidant properties. Glycosylated flavonols in fraction 2 (Fr2) from the extract of FSENN and their aglycones were identified by HPLC-ESI–MS² (negative mode), and six glycosylated and one aglycone flavonols in Fr2 were found. We also quantified flavonol aglycones (myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol and isorhamnetin) using HPLC method. The result showed that the quercetin content (10.2 mg/g of dry fraction) was higher than that of other aglycones. Antioxidant properties of Fr2 were evaluated in vitro by a number of methods including 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging, the β-carotene bleaching method, and hydroxyl radical and hydrogen peroxide scavenging ability using the chemiluminescence method. This antioxidant potential in terms of IC₅₀ values was 5.48, 40 ± 0.14 and 0.62 ± 0.05 μg (dry Fr2)/mL on DPPH radicals, hydroxyl radicals and hydrogen peroxide, respectively. The Fr2 also exhibited antioxidant property in the β-carotene bleaching assay. In total, it possesses high levels of flavonol compounds with high antioxidant potential, and it is beneficial for the treatment or prevention of a variety of diseases and has nutraceutical potential.     

Anti-inflammatory effect of the immature peel extract of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Jinkyool</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Citrus sunki</Emphasis> Hort. ex Tanaka)

The peel of jinkyool (Citrus sunki Hort. ex Tanaka) has been widely used in traditional Asian medicine for treatment of a number of diseases, including indigestion and bronchial asthma. In the present study, we compared the flavonoids content and anti-inflammatory activities of ethanolic peel extracts from both immature and mature fruits. Comparing to the mature peel extract (MPE), the immature peel extract (IPE) contained more abundant flavonoids. IPE more effectively suppressed intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation (IPE, 67.6±1.2%; MPE, 78.9±2.4% at 300 μg/mL of control), nitric oxide (NO) production, and inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) protein expression, as well as interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) mRNA expression in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Additionally, IPE reduced c-Jun NH₂-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 mitogen-activated kinase (p38) activation, suggesting that IPE may exert an anti-inflammatory effect by suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokines that suppress activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). Taken together, these results indicate that IPE has potential for use as an anti-inflammatory agent.     

Evaluation of aeration and substrate concentration on the production of carotenoids by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sporidiobolus salmonicolor</Emphasis> (CBS 2636) in bioreactor

This study aimed at optimising the cultivation conditions for the production of carotenoids by Sporidiobolus salmonicolor (CBS 2636) in a bioreactor. The maximum content of total carotenoids in the full factorial design 22 was 3131.3 μg/L in synthetic medium with 80 g/L of glucose, 15 g/L of peptone, 5 g/L of malt extract, aeration of 1.5 vvm, agitation of 180 rpm, initial pH of 4.0 at 25 °C. In the kinetic study, we could observe that the bioproduction of carotenoids is associated with cell growth in the exponential phase, and the average specific growth (μ) in bioreactor is 0.046 h⁻¹ with a maximum yield of 0.19 g cells/L h. The maximum yield of carotenoids (60.0 μg/Lh) is observed at 50-h bioproduction. The conversion factor for total organic carbon (TOC) in cells (Y_X/_SCOT) was 2.97 g/g (0–50 h) and 0.254 g/g (50–100 h), the conversion factor glucose into cells (Y_X/Sglicose) was 0.168 g/g (0–100 h). The specific production of carotenoids (Y_P/_X) was 390 μg of carotenoids per gram of cells, the conversion factor of carbon in the product (Y_P/SCOT) was 107.8 μg/g (0–50 h) and 34.4 μg/g (50–100 h), whereas the factor Y_P/_Sglicose was 69.59 μg/g. The agitation and aeration provided better homogeneity in the culture medium, and hence greater availability of nutrients and oxygen, leading to higher production of carotenoids.