Effects of temporal perspective on the attribution process.

Examined in 4 experiments with 194 undergraduates, whether people's causal analyses of events change with time. It was found that as temporal distance from an event increased, Ss both interpreted their own behavior and outcomes as being more due to situational influences and perceived their behavior to have been more similar to the behavior of others. Also, differences in the attributions of actors and observers narrowed as the temporal distance from the target event increased. Two possible explanations for the tendency of Ss to view their past behavior as being more normative and situationally caused were considered: (a) features of the situation (ground) became more salient or available as temporal distance from the event increased; and (b) the need to see oneself as exercising effective control over situations diminished with time. Results are seen as more consistent with the latter than the former explanation, but the likelihood of multiple influences is emphasized. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relation between ego identity and temporal perspective.

In an attempt to expand the ego identity concept of J. E. Marcia (1975) to include the area of temporal perspective, 80 male undergraduates were administered a time line developed by the present 1st author. Temporal density (percentage of experiences in each of 5 time zones), temporal extension (chronological time spans for the past, future, and overall), and perceived duration (line length for each of 5 time zones) were measured, and an identity status interview was rated with a 4-status classification system (diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and identity achievement). Findings show significant differences between identity groups with regard to the proportional allocation both of experiences (i.e., density) and of linear space (i.e., perceived duration) among the time zones. The achievement and foreclosure groups generally scored higher on measures of futurity than did the diffusion and moratorium groups. Results point toward the crucial importance of the contextual framework in interpreting findings regarding temporal perspective. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of dysfunctional thought processes on subjective well-being and job satisfaction.

Although the dispositional approach to job satisfaction has received a good deal of recent attention, a fundamental deficiency in past dispositional research is a failure to use existing theories to explain why individuals are unhappy and dissatisfied with their jobs. E. A. Locke (1976), T. A. Judge (1992), and Judge and C. L. Hulin (in press) suggested that thinking processes should be studied in relation to job satisfaction. This study tested the thesis that the cognitive theory of depression, which focuses on individuals' thought processes, will help in understanding both subjective well-being and job satisfaction. A confirmatory model involving subjective well-being, job satisfaction, dysfunctional thought processes, and other relevant influences was hypothesized and tested by using a stratified random sample of university employees. Ratings were obtained from 2 sources to reduce single-source bias. Results indicate strong support for the overall model and for the adverse effect of dysfunctional thought processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of memory perspective on retrospective causal attributions.

Examined whether people's retrospective causal attributions might be mediated by the visual perspective from which events are recalled. In Study 1, pairs of Ss participated in "get-acquainted" converstions and made a series of attribution ratings for their performance. They returned 3 weeks later to rerate their performance on the same attribution scales and to indicate the perspective from which they remembered their earlier conversation. Ss reported either "observer" memories in which they could "see" themselves from the outside or "field" memories in which their field of view matched that of the original situation. Study 2 was identical to Study 1 with the exception that Ss' memory perspectives were manipulated via verbal instructions. In both experiments, conversations that were recalled from an observer's perspective were attributed more dispositionally. Discussion of these results focuses on how they further understanding of the contradictory findings (e.g., B. S. Moore et al; see record 1981-01280-001) reported in the literature on temporal shifts in attributions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of reward probability on spatial and temporal variation.

Gharib, Derby, and Roberts (2001) proposed that reducing reward expectation increases variation of response form. We tested this rule in a new situation and asked if it also applied to variation of response location and timing. In 2 discrete-trial experiments, pigeons pecked colored circles for food. The circles were of 6 possible colors, each associated with a different probability of reward. Reducing reward expectation did not affect peck duration (a measure of form) but did increase horizontal variation of peck location and interpeck-interval variation. The effect of reward probability on the standard deviation of interpeck intervals was clearer (larger t value) than its effect on mean interpeck interval. Two datasets from rats had similar interresponse-interval effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of vibration in combined axes on subjective evaluation of ride quality.

Two experiments investigated the effects of simultaneous sinusoidal vibration in the vertical and lateral axes on ratings of discomfort in human Ss in a simulated passenger aircraft. In Exp I, each of 24 undergraduates experienced each of 10 levels of lateral frequency of vibration at 10 levels of vertical frequency and rated the discomfort produced on a 9-point, unipolar scale. Both vertical frequency and lateral frequency, as well as the interaction between the two, significantly affected the subjective ratings. In Exp II, 72 undergraduates experienced 1 of 4 levels of vertical frequency at each of 4 levels of vertical amplitude combined with 16 lateral frequency and amplitude conditions. Not only did the 4 major variables studied significantly affect ratings of discomfort, but the interactions between them had significant effects as well. Results of the 2 studies strongly suggest that there are effects on discomfort that occur when Ss are vibrated in several axes at once that cannot be assessed with research using vibration in only one axis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A measure of increased temporal perspective in successfully treated adolescent delinquent boys.

The proposition that the temporal dimension of fantasy, which is usually restricted in delinquent adolescents, could be extended by suitable psychotherapy was tested and confirmed. Using time spans in TAT-type stories as the measure of temporal perspective, comparison was made between stories told by 10 delinquent boys before and after vocationally oriented psychotherapy, as compared to stories told by 10 matched, untreated controls. Increase in prospective fantasy was greatest in stories told to cards designed to tap self-image and control of aggression. Increase in past-oriented fantasies was greatest in stories told to control of aggression cards. Changes in certain fantasy measures correlated with changes in practical achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of global structure and temporal organization on chord processing.

This study further explores the effect of global context on chord processing reported by E. Bigand and M. Pineau (1997). Expectations of a target chord were varied by manipulating the preliminary harmonic context while holding constant the chord(s) prior to the target. In Experiment 1, previously observed priming effects were replicated with an on-line paradigm. Experiment 2 was an attempt to identify the point in chord sequences that is responsible for the occurrence of the priming effect. In Experiment 3, Bigand and Pineau's findings were extended to wider harmonic contexts (i.e., defined at three hierarchical levels), and new evidence was provided that chord processing also depends on the temporal organization of the musical sequence. Neural net simulations globally support J. J. Bharucha's (1987, 1994) view that priming effects result from activations spreading via a schematic knowledge of Western harmony. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of age, skill, and performance feedback on children's judgments of confidence.

We examined children's judgments of confidence following performance on a cognitive task as a function of the children's age and skill and the presence or absence of feedback regarding performance. Second and third graders (n?=?75) and fifth and sixth graders (n?=?79) estimated the numerosity of large numbers of dots, made ratings of confidence concerning their answers, and were assessed on a timed task of counting in multiples. For older children, regardless of skill level, feedback was associated with "calibration," that is, a positive relation between estimation accuracy and confidence. For younger children, on the other hand, feedback was associated with such a relation only if the children were relatively skillful on the counting task. Results suggest that domain-specific knowledge, in conjunction with objective feedback following task performance, may help young children compensate for developmental factors that typically are associated with an unrealistically high degree of confidence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Probing the locus of confidence judgments: Experiments on the time to determine confidence.

Three experiments investigated the properties of the time to determine confidence to determine the processing locus for the judgment of confidence. Results suggest that when the primary decision is made under speed stress, confidence is determined postdecisionally and involves a memory-based, computational algorithm. This strategy frees the primary decision of processing time and permits the accurate diagnosis of decision errors. When the primary decision is made under accuracy stress, however, the determination of confidence is initiated, or can even be completed, during the primary decision process. This strategy permits confidence to be used in the adaptive regulation of the decisional parameters during the decision process but yields poorer diagnosticity of errors when they occur. The latter finding also implies that primary decision latencies include time to determine confidence, rendering such data difficult, if not impossible, to model empirically. Implications for contemporary decision models that provide a basis for confidence in human judgment are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of temporal focus on the recall of expectancy-consistent and expectancy-inconsistent information.

Examined the impact of temporal focus on the recall of information that is consistent or inconsistent with an expectation. A consistent pattern of results across 4 experiments indicates that when Ss' expectations are temporally unfocused, better memory for consistent information is observed. In contrast, when expectations are focused in time (i.e., Ss know when the relevant events are likely to occur) recall for consistent and inconsistent information is more balanced. Exp 4 tied these recall findings to the amount of processing devoted to consistent and inconsistent events. When expectations were temporally unfocused, processing time and recall was greater for the confirmatory information. When expectations were temporally focused, more equivalent processing time and recall of consistent and inconsistent information was observed. Discussion centers on the role of temporal focus as a determinant of whether an event is 1-sided or 2-sided. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Feedback and response confidence.

60 undergraduates read a 30-frame program on the human eye and either did or did not receive feedback after each response. Ss rated their degree of assuredness in the question alternatives selected, and all learners were posttested immediately and after a 1-wk delay. High-confidence responses were remembered better if they were answered right in the program and were more likely to be corrected on the test if the program response was incorrect. The greater correctability of high-confidence errors was attributed to longer feedback study times. Feedback had little effect on low-confidence responses. When an S failed to understand the program content, confidence was low and the feedback ineffective. Results support a model relating feedback, confidence, and postresponse behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the genesis of confidence.

Confidence in personality impressions is proposed to stem from the richness of people's mental representations of others. Representational richness produces confidence because it enhances the fluency with which people can make judgments, and it increases confidence even when it does not result in more accurate impressions. Results of 3 experiments support these propositions. A 4th experiment suggests that representational richness is increased by both pseudorelevant and relevant information, but not by irrelevant information. A 5th experiment suggests that representational richness has effects on confidence above and beyond the effects of metainformation (i.e., extracontent aspects of information). The implications of these findings for evaluating evidence of error in person perception and for reducing stereotyping and prejudice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Have confidence in contact.

In an article in the May–June 2009 American Psychologist, we discussed a new approach to reducing prejudice and encouraging more positive intergroup relations (Crisp & Turner, 2009). We named the approach imagined intergroup contact and defined it as “the mental simulation of a social interaction with a member or members of an outgroup category” (Crisp & Turner, 2009, p. 234). Our proposition is that simply imagining contact with outgroup members can produce more positive perceptions of outgroups. In his commentary, Honeycutt noted that our “article is excellent in its premise” (p. 129), but he was critical of our decision not to discuss his own work in imagined interactions (IIs). Imagined contact is not a magic cure, and it is not a one-shot solution to the problem of prejudice. But as a first step on the road to reduced prejudice and more positive intergroup relations, it may just turn out to be invaluable. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dimensions of subjective adjustment.

"A representative sample of the resident population of adults in the United States was interviewed about their feelings of distress in different life areas: perceptions of the self; symptoms of distress; adjustment in marriage parenthood, and work." Factor analysis of these data revealed the presence of 5 separate dimensions through which distress may be expressed: anxiety, unhappiness, sense of social inadequacy, lack of identity, and physical ill health. Men and women were distinguished by distress being expressed through physical ill health for men, psychological symptoms for women. The study indicates that psychological adjustment is multi-rather than unidimensional. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cultural influences on confidence: Country and gender.

The objective of the present investigation was to extend research on metamemory and confidence calibration and discrimination to other countries using items from actual course examinations. The authors investigated gender differences in confidence judgments of 551 postsecondary students from 25 university courses in 5 countries: Israel, the Netherlands, Palestine, Taiwan, and the United States. Because important distinctions between men and women and among various countries might be hidden by examining only overall confidence, the authors analyzed students' confidence both when they were correct on each exam item and when they were incorrect. Large and significant differences were found in overall confidence, confidence when correct, and confidence when wrong, associated primarily with country and culture. In contrast, gender differences tended to be surprisingly small when viewed within countries. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of impulsivity and sociability on subjective well-being.

To investigate the influence of sociability and impulsivity on positive affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction, 140 undergraduates (68 in Study 1 and 72 in Study 2) completed daily mood reports and were administered the Eysenck Personality Inventory, as well as other well-being measures. Results show that sociability but not impulsivity was strongly related to positive affect, whereas impulsivity tended to correlate more with negative affect. Similarly, sociability but not impulsivity was significantly related to life satisfaction. Possible reasons for the relations observed in this study are offered, and factors underlying the independence of positive and negative affect are discussed. It is contended that the purpose of the present study was not to challenge P. T. Costa and R. R. McCrae's (see record 1981-10468-001) argument that 2 sets of factors are responsible for producing the independent positive and negative effect. However, given the magnitude of the correlations obtained, both in Costa and McCrae's and in the present study, it is questioned whether these 2 sets of personality factors are sufficient to account for the independence of the 2 classes of effects. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of flicker-induced depth on chromatic subjective contours.

Two experiments examined the dependence of illusory colors on boundary salience and depth stratification by using flicker-induced depth. The first used a subjective-contour stimulus that appeared as a translucent colored rectangle covering a set of inducing circles and a dark background. The circles were then flickered so as to be perceived as background, and the previously dark background moved forward and appeared as foreground. Simultaneously, the chromatic subjective contour was eliminated. In the second experiment, a subjective-contour (faces/vase-concentric squares) figure was tinted with the McCollough effect, which produced a strong subjective color edge. This edge was visible only with the faces/vase percept and not in the squares percept. Flickering the target locked it into the square configuration because in this case the flicker held the entire pattern in the same depth plane. This eliminated the subjective color edge. Depth stratification and subjective color blockage were maximal at a flicker rate of 6 Hz. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of parental divorce on marital commitment and confidence.

Research on the intergenerational transmission of divorce has demonstrated that compared with offspring of nondivorced parents, those of divorced parents generally have more negative attitudes toward marriage as an institution and are less optimistic about the feasibility of a long-lasting, healthy marriage. It is also possible that when entering marriage themselves, adults whose parents divorced have less personal relationship commitment to their own marriages and less confidence in their own ability to maintain a happy marriage with their spouse. However, this prediction has not been tested. In the current study, we assessed relationship commitment and relationship confidence, as well as parental divorce and retrospectively reported interparental conflict, in a sample of 265 engaged couples prior to their first marriage. Results demonstrated that women's, but not men's, parental divorce was associated with lower relationship commitment and lower relationship confidence. These effects persisted when controlling for the influence of recalled interparental conflict and premarital relationship adjustment. The current findings suggest that women whose parents divorced are more likely to enter marriage with relatively lower commitment to, and confidence in, the future of those marriages, potentially raising their risk for divorce. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A problem with confidence intervals.

Comments on J. Cohen's (see record 1995-12080-001) suggestion that experimenters should calculate confidence intervals. Two different ways of interpreting a confidence interval are discussed. The author asks how Cohen can criticize the logic of null hypothesis significance testing and then recommend reporting a statistic that relies on this logic. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)