A comprehensive dynamic cutting force model for chatter prediction in turning

This paper presents a model of the dynamic cutting force process for the three-dimensional or oblique turning operation. To obtain dynamic force predictions, the mechanistic force model is linked to a tool–workpiece vibration model. Particular attention was paid to the inclusion of the cross-coupling between radial and axial vibrations in the force model. The inclusion of this cross-coupling facilitates prediction of the unstable–stable chatter phenomenon which usually occurs in certain cases of finish turning due to process non-linearity. The dynamic force model developed was incorporated into a computer program to obtain time-saving chatter predictions. Experimental tests were performed on AISI 4140 steel workpieces to justify the chatter predictions of the dynamic cutting process model in both the finishing and roughing regimes. Experimental results corroborate the unstable–stable chatter predictions of the model for different cases of finish machining. In addition, experimental results also confirmed the accuracy of chatter predictions for various cases of rough turning.     

A mechanistic model-based force-feedback scheme for voice-coil actuated radial contour turning

In this paper, a mechanistic model-based force feedback scheme is presented for improving the tracking performance of radial contour turning (also known as the non-circular turning process) with a voice-coil actuator. The current form of voice-coil actuation mechanism (with acceleration feedback) is briefly described and its limitations for high frequency disturbance rejection are identified. Stability issues for the proposed force feedback scheme are discussed via small gain theorem. Tracking performance improvements due to the force feedback scheme are investigated via simulations for different types of non-circular contours and cutting conditions. The effects of various process parameters on relative tracking improvements are also analyzed.     

A comprehensive chatter prediction model for face turning operation including tool wear effect

This paper presents a three-dimensional mechanistic frequency domain chatter model for face turning processes, that can account for the effects of tool wear including process damping. New formulations are presented to model the variation in process damping forces along nonlinear tool geometries such as the nose radius. The underlying dynamic force model simulates the variation in the chip cross-sectional area by accounting for the displacements in the axial and radial directions. The model can be used to determine stability boundaries under various cutting conditions and different states of flank wear. Experimental results for different amounts of wear are provided as a validation for the model.     

Generalized modeling of drilling vibrations. Part I: Time domain model of drilling kinematics, dynamics and hole formation

This two part paper presents a comprehensive exercise in modeling dynamics, kinematics and stability in drilling operations. While Part II focuses on the chatter stability of drilling in frequency domain, Part I presents a three-dimensional (3D) dynamic model of drilling which considers rigid body motion, and torsional–axial and lateral vibrations in drilling, and resulting hole formation. The model is used to investigate: (a) the mechanism of whirling vibrations, which occur due to lateral drill deflections; (b) lateral chatter vibrations; and (c) combined lateral and torsional–axial vibrations. Mechanistic cutting force models are used to accurately predict lateral forces, torque and thrust as functions of feedrate, radial depth of cut, drill geometry and vibrations. Grinding errors reflected on the drill geometry are considered in the model. A 3D workpiece, consisting of a cylindrical hole wall and a hole bottom surface, is fed to the rotating drill while the structural vibrations are excited by the cutting forces. The mechanism of whirling vibrations is explained, and the hole wall formation during whirling vibrations is investigated by imposing commonly observed whirling motion on the drill. The time domain model is used to predict the cutting forces and frequency content as well as the shape of the hole wall, and how it depends on the amplitude and frequency of the whirling vibration. The model is also used to predict regenerative, lateral chatter vibrations. The influence of pilot hole size, spindle speed and torsional–axial chatter on lateral vibrations is observed from experimental cutting forces, frequency spectra and shows good similarity with simulation results. The effect of the drill–hole surface contact during drilling is discussed by observing the discrepancies between the numerical model of the drilling process and experimental measurements.     

Modeling of cutting forces in near dry machining under tool wear effect

A predictive model for the cutting forces in near dry machining, in which only a small amount of cutting fluid is used, is developed based on considerations of both the lubricating effect and the cooling effect. For the lubricating effect, with the material properties, lubricating parameters, and cutting conditions, the friction coefficient in near dry machining is calculated based on the boundary lubrication model for use in a modified Oxley's approach to determine the cutting forces. For the cooling effect in near dry machining, a moving heat source method is pursued to quantify the primary-zone shear deformation heating, the secondary-zone friction heating, and flank face air–oil mixture cooling. These two effects are considered collectively to estimate cutting forces under the condition of sharp tools. The predicted variables of flow stress, contact length, and shear angle obtained from the model are used to predict the cutting forces due to the tool flank wear effect based on Waldorf's model. Comparisons are made between predicted and experimental cutting forces for sharp tools and worn tools in the cutting of AISI 1045 with uncoated carbide tools. The results show that the proposed model provides average prediction errors of 14% in the tangential cutting force direction, 21% in the axial directions, and 30% in the radial directions within the experimental test condition range (cutting speeds of 45.75–137.25 m/min, feeds 0.0508–0.1016 mm/rev, and depth of cuts 0.508–1.016 mm). It is also found that the cutting forces in near dry machining are generally lower than those under dry machining condition. Under cutting speeds of 91.5 and 137.25 m/min, the deviations of the predicted forces between near dry machining and dry machining range from 5% to 39% for axial cutting forces, 3% to 36% for radial cutting forces, and 1% to 32% for tangential cutting forces. It suggests that the lubricating mechanism has a stronger effect on cutting forces than the cooling mechanism when cutting AISI 1045 with uncoated carbide tools.     

Some theories on the effects of atmospheric humidity on tool forces and chip formation in turning

A series of experiments were performed in which steel, aluminium and brass were turned on a lathe without using any lubricant or coolant and under various conditions of relative humidity. The results show that if other parameters are kept constant, all three (axial, radial and tangential) components of tool force in dry turning decrease quite significantly with increasing relative humidity. This paper puts forward some possible explanations for this phenomenon.     

State of the art in hard turning

Hard turning is gaining grounds for machining hardened steels as it has several benefits over grinding. There are several issues, which should be understood and dealt with, to achieve successful performance of the process. Researchers have worked upon several aspects related to hard turning. The present work is an effort to review some of these works and to understand the key issues related to process performance. The review shows that the type of tool material, cutting edge geometry and cutting parameters affect the process efficiencies in terms of tool forces, surface integrities integrity, and white layer. Adequate machine rigidity is a must essential to minimize the process inaccuracies. Also moreover, for finish hard turning, where the depth of cut is less than the nose radius of the tool, the forces deviate from the conventional trends as the radial force component is the maximum and axial force component becomes minimum. The present work finally lists down certain areas that can be taken up for further research in hard turning.     

管件电磁成形电磁力分布特性分析

本文基于安培力定理建立了管件电磁成形时径向和轴向电磁力的计算公式 ,直观描述了线圈 -工件系统几何参数与电磁力幅值的对应关系 ,阐述了轴向电磁力对提高材料成形性能的作用 ,用数值方法分析了径向和轴向电磁力的分布特性。分析表明 ,细管较粗管成形困难 ,轴向电磁力在管端最大 ,忽略轴向电磁力会导致终态变形分析值小于实际值。     

Time domain simulation of torsional–axial vibrations in drilling

A time domain model of the torsional–axial chatter vibrations in drilling is presented. The model considers the exact kinematics of rigid body, and coupled torsional and axial vibrations of the drill. The tool is modeled as a pretwisted beam that exhibits axial and torsional deflections due to torque and thrust loading. A mechanistic cutting force model is used to accurately predict the cutting torque and thrust as a function of feedrate, radial depth of cut, and drill geometry. The drill rotates and feeds axially into the workpiece while the structural vibrations are excited by the cutting torque and thrust. The location of the drill edge is predicted using the kinematics model, and the generated surface is digitized at discrete time intervals. The distribution of chip thickness, which is affected by both rigid body motion and structural vibrations, is evaluated by subtracting the presently generated surface from the previous one. The model considers nonlinearities in cutting coefficients, tool jumping out of cut and overlapping of multiple regeneration waves. Force, torque, power and dimensional form errors left on the surface are predicted using the dynamic chip thickness obtained from the exact kinematics model. The stability of the drilling process is also evaluated using the time domain simulation model, and compared with extensive experiments. This paper provides details of the mathematical model, experimental verification and simulation capabilities. Although the surface finish from unstable cutting can be predicted realistically, the actual drilling stability cannot be determined without including process damping.     

Estimation of cutting forces in micromilling through the determination of specific cutting pressures

In this paper a new model for the estimation of cutting forces in micromilling based on specific cutting pressure is presented. The proposed model includes three parameters which allow to control the entry of the cutter in the workpiece and which consider also the errors in the radial position of the cutting edges of the tool.

Due to the difficulties presented in the manufacturing of the micromilling tools, manufacturing errors frequently appear. These are errors in the radial and angular position of the cutting edge and have significant influence in the estimation of the instantaneous cutting force in micromilling.

The accuracy of the estimated parameters of the cutting force expression plays a major role in the resulting cutting force. For this reason, the influence of the fitting of the specific cutting pressure is analyzed.

The new mechanistic force model determines the instantaneous cutting force coefficients using experimental data processed for one cutter revolution. The model has been validated through experimental tests over a wide range of cutting conditions. The results obtained show good agreement between the predicted and measured cutting forces.     

An examination of the fundamental mechanics of cutting force coefficients

In metal cutting, the cutting force is the key factor affecting the machined surface, and is also important in determining reasonable cutting parameters. The research and construction of cutting force prediction models therefore has a great practical value. The accuracy of cutting force prediction largely depends on the cutting force coefficients of the material. In the average cutting force model, cutting force coefficients are considered to be constant. This study makes use of experiments to investigate the cutting force coefficients in the average cutting force model, with a view to accurately identifying cutting force coefficients and verifying that they are related only to the tool–workpiece material couple and the tool geometrical parameters, and are not affected by milling parameters. To this end, the paper first examines the theory behind identifying cutting force coefficients in the average cutting force model. Based on this theory, a series of slot-milling experiments are performed to measure the milling forces, fixing spindle speeds and radial/axial depths of cutting, and linearly varying the feed per tooth. The tangential milling force coefficient and the radial milling force coefficient are then calculated by linearly fitting the experimental data. The obtained results show that altering the milling parameters does not change the milling force coefficients for the selected tool/workpiece material combination.     

细长轴车削与磨削参数优化研究

针对细长轴车削和磨削加工参数的选择问题,建立以工件刚度、刀片强度、刀杆刚度、机床进给机构强度、机床功率、机床参数、加工表面粗糙度、加工余量等作为约束条件,以切削速度、进给量、背吃刀量、工件转速、磨削余量、径向进给量等参数为优化变量,以车、磨多工序成本最低为目标的切削参数优化模型。以某型号电机轴为案例,运用MATLAB模式搜索工具箱对其车削和磨削参数进行寻优,与切削参数的传统选择方法比较表明,工序成本可降低35%以上,从而验证了优化模型的有效性。     

钛合金真空自耗熔炼过程中电流、磁场和电磁力数值模拟

采用有限元模拟软件Ansys Electromagnetics Suite中Maxwell 3D模块建立钛合金真空自耗熔炼过程电磁场数学物理模型,分析并掌握熔炼过程中电流、磁场和电磁力相互作用规律,并研究了熔炼电流和搅拌电流变化对磁场及电磁力的影响。结果表明：铸锭中电流均呈向心分布,且集中分布在铸锭上部350 mm范围内;熔炼电流产生切向磁场,搅拌电流产生轴向磁场,两者进行简单耦合;在熔炼电流及其自感磁场的作用下,产生径向和轴向电磁力;该电磁力又在搅拌磁场的作用下发生旋转,产生切向电磁力;随熔炼电流线性变化,磁场切向分量和电磁力的径向和轴向合力均呈线性变化;随搅拌电流线性变化,磁场轴向分量和电磁力径向分量均呈线性变化。     

Thermal modeling for white layer predictions in finish hard turning

Part thermal damage is a process limitation in finish hard turning and understanding process parameter effects, especially, tool wear, on cutting temperatures is fundamental for process modeling and optimization. This study develops an analytical model for cutting temperature predictions, in particular, at the machined-surfaces, in finish hard turning by either a new or worn tool.A mechanistic model is employed to estimate the chip formation forces. Wear-land forces are modeled using an approach that assumes linear growth of plastic zone on the wear-land and quadratic decay of stresses in elastic contact. Machining forces and geometric characteristics, i.e. shear plane, chip–tool contact, and flank wear-land, approximate the heat intensity and dimensions of the shear plane, rake face, as well as wear-land heat sources. The three heat sources are further discretized into small segments, each treated as an individual rectangular heat source and subsequently used to calculate temperatures using modified moving or stationary heat-source approaches. Temperature rises due to all heat-source segments are superimposed, with proper coordinate transformation, to obtain the final temperature distributions due to the overall heat sources. All heat sources are simultaneously considered to determine heat partition coefficients, both at the rake face and wear-land, and evaluate the final temperature rises due to the combined heat-source effects.Simulation results show that, in new tool cutting, maximum machined-surface temperatures are adversely affected by increasing feed rate and cutting speed, but favorably by increasing depth of cut. In worn tool cutting, flank wear has decisive effects on machined-surface temperatures; the maximum temperature increases 2–3 times from 0 to 0.2 mm wear-land width. White layers (phase-transformed structures) formed at the machined-surfaces have been used to experimentally validate the analytical model by investigating tool nose radius effects on the white layer depth. The experimental results show good agreement with the model predictions.The established model forms a framework for analytical predictions of machined-surface temperatures in finish hard turning that are critical to part surface integrity and can be used to specify a tool life criterion.     

Statistical analysis of surface roughness and cutting forces using response surface methodology in hard turning of AISI 52100 bearing steel with CBN tool

The present work concerns an experimental study of hard turning with CBN tool of AISI 52100 bearing steel, hardened at 64 HRC. The main objectives are firstly focused on delimiting the hard turning domain and investigating tool wear and forces behaviour evolution versus variations of workpiece hardness and cutting speed. Secondly, the relationship between cutting parameters (cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut) and machining output variables (surface roughness, cutting forces) through the response surface methodology (RSM) are analysed and modeled. The combined effects of the cutting parameters on machining output variables are investigated while employing the analysis of variance (ANOVA). The quadratic model of RSM associated with response optimization technique and composite desirability was used to find optimum values of machining parameters with respect to objectives (surface roughness and cutting force values). Results show how much surface roughness is mainly influenced by feed rate and cutting speed. Also, it is underlined that the thrust force is the highest of cutting force components, and it is highly sensitive to workpiece hardness, negative rake angle and tool wear evolution. Finally, the depth of cut exhibits maximum influence on cutting forces as compared to the feed rate and cutting speed.     

Ternary manufacturing envelopes (TMEs)—a new approach to describing machined surfaces

Newley-developed “Ternary Manufacturing Envelopes” were designed to gain an appreciation and greater understanding of three-dimensional parameter characterisation for a limited range of turning, boring and drilling operations on the same materials—in this case Fe–Cu–C Powder Metallurgy components. This allowed one to test whether such TEM's gave consistent and reliable results in combination with their influence on surface and roundness parameters, for specific feedrate conditions. Not only can TEM's be utilised for these examples, but other valid pre-selected metrological and machining parameters can be combined, as a means of analysing machined surfaces.     

A closed form mechanistic cutting force model for helical peripheral milling of ductile metallic alloys

A closed form mechanistic model is developed for cutting forces in helical peripheral milling (endmilling) of ductile metallic alloys. This paper presents an alternative derivation, using the frontal chip area, to describe two series of cutting force expressions—one using a Heaviside unit step function and the other using a Fourier series expansion. A specific advantage of the present work is highlighted by deriving analytical expressions for sensitivity coefficients required to analytically propagate the uncertainty in the cutting-force model parameters. Another advantage is that even very small radial immersions can be used to derive cutting coefficients reliably, along with their variances. The aforementioned analytical investigations are applied to a series of experimental cutting tests to estimate the force-model cutting coefficients. Experimental investigations include the study of a tool having radial runout. Finally, confidence intervals are placed on predicted forces which experimentally verify the validity of the proposed force model.     

基于响应面法的环网柜接线套管干切削工艺参数优化研究

采用干切削加工是修复环网柜接线套管表面烧蚀、裂痕的一种有效方法。利用单因素试验研究切削用量在未涂层、TiAlCrN涂层和TiAlSiN涂层刀具下对切削力的影响规律。在单因素试验的基础上运用Box-Behnken中心组合试验方法,采用性能最优的TiAlSiN涂层刀具对环网柜接线套管切削工作参数进行试验研究,以切削速度、进给量和背吃刀量为试验因素,以刀具切向力、轴向力、径向力为试验指标进行三因素三水平二次旋转回归正交试验。通过建立响应面数学模型,分析各切削工艺参数对切削性能的影响,并对试验因素进行综合优化。试验结果表明：影响切削力显著顺序为背吃刀量＞进给量＞切削速度;最优参数组合为切削速度94.589 m/min、进给量0.097 mm/r、背吃刀量0.501 mm,此时刀具切向力为11.75 N、轴向力为34.80 N、径向力为19.53 N;验证试验结果与理论优化值基本吻合。     

The prediction of cutting forces in end milling with application to cornering cuts

This paper presents the development, verification, and implementation of a mechanistic model for the force system in end milling. This model is based on chip load, cut geometry, and the relationship between cutting forces and chip load. A model building procedure based on experimentally obtained average forces is presented and both instantaneous and average force system characteristics are described as a function of cut geometry and feed rate. A computer program developed to implement the mechanistic model provides tabular and graphical outputs which show force distributions as functions of the axial depth of cut and rotation of the cutter. Force characteristics during concerning cuts are predicted by the model and verified via a set of cornering cut experiments typical of aerospace machining operations. Force characteristics in cornering are examined as a function of axial depth of cut and feedrate.     

A note on ‘optimization of multi-pass turning operations using ant colony system’

An article by Vijayakumar et al. [Optimization of multi-pass turning operations using ant colony system, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture 43(15) (2003) 1633–1639] proposed an ant colony optimization methodology for determining the machining parameters in a multi-pass turning operation model. By using the problem of Chen and Tsai [A simulated annealing approach for optimization of multi-pass turning operations, International Journal of Production Research 34(10) (1996) 2803–2825], they concluded that their ant colony approach outperformed the other optimization techniques proposed by other researchers. This note discusses an illustrative multi-pass turning problem, which was used in several literatures and demonstrates that the optimal solution as found by Vijayakumar et al. [1] is not valid.