Review of cocoa butter and alternative fats for use in chocolate—Part A. Compositional data

This work reviews the literature on the compositional data of vegetable fats used or proposed as alternatives to cocoa butter in chocolate and confectionery products. Cocoa butter is the only continuous phase in chocolate, thus responsible for the dispersion of all other constituents and for the physical behaviour of chocolate. Unique to cocoa butter is its brittleness at room temperature and its quick and complete melting at body temperature. There were, and are, strong efforts to replace cocoa butter in part for chocolate production for technological and economic reasons. Such cocoa butter alternatives are the so-called cocoa butter equivalents (CBEs), cocoa butter substitutes (CBSs) and cocoa butter replacers (CBRs). These are mostly mixtures of various vegetable fats (often modified) and can consist of palm and palm kernel oil, illipé fat, shea butter, sal fat and kokum butter. In addition, a large variety of other vegetable oils can be used. Their composition according to triglycerides, fatty acids, sterols and other unsaponifiable components is discussed in this report.     

Detection and quantification of cocoa butter equivalents in chocolate model systems: analysis of triglyceride profiles by high resolution GC

The detection of vegetable fats added to cocoa butters in chocolate formulations was investigated in model mixtures. Cocoa butters varying in origins, crop and treatment were analysed alone and combined at levels of 5, 10, 15 or 20% to a variety of cocoa butter equivalents. Triglyceride profiles were obtained by high resolution GC. The areas of the major triglycerides present were plotted one vs the other. The plots of percentages of specific triglycerides allowed detection of vegetable fats added to cocoa butters in these model systems, and quantification of the addition could be done down to a 5% level on a cocoa butter basis. The detection was most difficult in the case of the addition of illipe fat and the quantification could not be done below 10%. The results suggest that, in chocolate, which contains 20–25% cocoa butter, this detection system works down to 1–2%, and thus well below the proposed 5% regulatory level. ©     

Evaluation of high oleic-high stearic sunflower hard stearins for cocoa butter equivalent formulation

Cocoa butter equivalents (CBEs) are produced from vegetable fats by blending palm mid fraction (PMF) and tropical butters coming from shea, mango kernel or kokum fat. In this regard, high oleic-high stearic (HOHS) sunflower hard stearins from solvent fractionation can be used in CBE production since their compositions and physical properties are similar to those found in the above-mentioned tropical butters. In this work, three sunflower hard stearins (SHS) ranging from 65% to 95% of disaturated triacylglycerols and a shea stearin (used as reference) were blended with PMF to evaluate their potential use in CBEs formulation. Isosolid phase diagrams of mixtures of PMF/SHS showed eutectic formation for SHS 65 and SHS 80, but monotectic behaviour with softening effect for SHS 95. Three CBEs from SHS and shea stearin were formulated according to phase behaviour diagrams and solid fat content data at 25 °C. Isosolid phase diagrams of mixtures of these CBEs with cocoa butter showed no eutectic behaviour. Therefore, CBEs elaborated from SHS exhibited full compatibility with cocoa butter.     

Cocoa butter fats and possibilities of substitution in food products concerning cocoa varieties,alternative sources,extraction methods,composition, and characteristics

The current concern for cocoa butter fat as major ingredients of chocolate intake in the World has raised the question of the high price of cocoa butter among all other vegetable fats. Productions of natural cocoa butter fats are decreasing day by day due to the decrease of cocoa cultivation worldwide; moreover, cocoa fruit contains only a little amount of cocoa butter. Therefore, the food industries are keen to find the alternatives to cocoa butter fat and this issue has been contemplated among food manufacturers. This review offers an update of scientific research conducted in relation to the alternative fats of cocoa butter from natural sources. The findings highlights how these cocoa butter alternatives are being produced either by blending, modifying the natural oils or fats from palm oil, palm kernel oil, mango seed kernel fats, kokum butter fat, sal fat, shea butter, and illipé fat.     

Identification of cocoa butter equivalents added to cocoa butter I. An approach by fatty acid composition of the triacylglycerol sub-fractions separated by Ag+-HPLC

 Separation of the six sub-fractions of triacylglycerols (TAG) from cocoa butter, three cocoa butter equivalents (CBEs: calvetta, choclin and coberine) and their mixtures was carried out by silver ion high-performance liquid chromatography. The percentage fatty acid composition of all these sub-fractions was then measured by high-resolution gas chromatographic analysis of the methyl esters of the constitutive fatty acids. In particular, the percentage quantities of all acids in the fully saturated sub-fraction of pure fats and some of their mixtures were evaluated as a function of the percentage CBEs added to cocoa butter in order to devise multiple regression models. The aim was to obtain statistical tools for the identification and/or quantification of added CBEs. The results obtained show the effectiveness of TAG sub-fraction percentage fatty acid composition data for the purposes of research, as well as the potential use of stereospecific analysis of the same sub-fractions. In fact, the stereospecific analysis of TAG fractions from cocoa butter and CBEs already carried out has enabled observation of the different distributions of various fatty acids in the glycerol backbone of TAG from cocoa butter and the CBEs under study, and this will certainly result in the development of more powerful and discriminating statistical models. Received: 12 August 1997 / Revised version: 19 December 1997     

Identification of cocoa butter equivalents added to cocoa butter I. An approach by fatty acid composition of the triacylglycerol sub-fractions separated by Ag+-HPLC

 Separation of the six sub-fractions of triacylglycerols (TAG) from cocoa butter, three cocoa butter equivalents (CBEs: calvetta, choclin and coberine) and their mixtures was carried out by silver ion high-performance liquid chromatography. The percentage fatty acid composition of all these sub-fractions was then measured by high-resolution gas chromatographic analysis of the methyl esters of the constitutive fatty acids. In particular, the percentage quantities of all acids in the fully saturated sub-fraction of pure fats and some of their mixtures were evaluated as a function of the percentage CBEs added to cocoa butter in order to devise multiple regression models. The aim was to obtain statistical tools for the identification and/or quantification of added CBEs. The results obtained show the effectiveness of TAG sub-fraction percentage fatty acid composition data for the purposes of research, as well as the potential use of stereospecific analysis of the same sub-fractions. In fact, the stereospecific analysis of TAG fractions from cocoa butter and CBEs already carried out has enabled observation of the different distributions of various fatty acids in the glycerol backbone of TAG from cocoa butter and the CBEs under study, and this will certainly result in the development of more powerful and discriminating statistical models. Received: 12 August 1997 / Revised version: 19 December 1997     

Review of cocoa butter and alternative fats for use in chocolate—Part B. Analytical approaches for identification and determination

This work reviews the literature on analytical methods suitable for the detection, identification and determination of foreign fats in cocoa butter and chocolate. Most methods are based on chromatography, analysing either the fatty acids, triglyceride or the fractions of the unsaponifiables (sterols, triterpenes, etc.). None of the methods reviewed here allows the unequivocal quantification, or just the detection, of foreign fats in chocolate without any exemption for the kind of foreign fat added. The type of foreign fats which are not detectable depends strongly on the analytical techniques applied. It is proposed to combine a number of techniques with a chemometric approach to develop unique patterns allowing the unequivocal detection and quantification of foreign fats, without having prior knowledge regarding the kind of fat added. This approach is based on the use of a complex pattern of the constituents of cocoa butter and any deviation from this pattern is attributed to the existence of foreign fat.     

巧克力食品中可可脂及其代用品的鉴别研究

巧克力食品中的常用油脂主要包括天然可可脂、类可可脂、代可可脂和乳脂,采用高温气相色谱法对这四种油脂的甘油三酯组成进行分离。结果表明,天然可可脂与类可可脂的甘油三酯组成较相似,但与代可可脂完全不同,乳脂的甘油三脂组成非常复杂,以其特殊的峰型区别于其它各脂。通过甘油三酯组成的谱图特征可快速、直观地鉴别出这四种油脂。实际应用可区分市售可可脂巧克力和代可可脂巧克力。     

Production of stearate-rich butters by solvent fractionation of high stearic–high oleic sunflower oil

Cocoa butter equivalents (CBEs) are fats with a similar composition and melting profile as cocoa butter (CB), which are usually prepared by blending mid-palm fractions and stearate-rich tropical butters. In this regard, high stearic–high oleic sunflower oil contains disaturated triacylglycerols typically present in CBEs, albeit at a lower concentration than that required to produce a solid fat. Here we have assessed a means to fractionate this oil in order to produce solid fractions that can be used as stearic acid-rich butters appropriate for CBE formulations. Solvent fractionation of high stearic–high oleic sunflower oil was optimised in function of the oil/solvent ratio and temperature. Sunflower stearins with similar melting profiles as cocoa butter were obtained from oils of either 17% or 20% stearic acid in a single step. Different stearin products can be obtained by controlling the oil/solvent ratio and the temperature of fractionation. The use of these fractions as CBE components or confectionery fats is discussed in function of their melting profiles.     

巧克力用脂肪替代品——类可可脂

<正> 巧克力产品的质量,如软硬度、口感细腻度、风味特性等,主要取决于其配料成分的质量及加工工艺的优化程度。作为巧克力产品的主要成分,可可脂和乳脂的种类及功能特性是重要的生产及质量指标。基本上,可可脂和乳脂都是取自天然的原材料,在不同的季节、产地来源所得的质量均会有所不同,要保持产品质量稳定一致,对巧克力生产商来说无疑是一项大挑战。 为了解决这个难题,食品配料及添加剂生产商一直致力于研究开发各     

1-棕榈酸-2-油酸-3-硬脂酸甘油三酯对巧克力霜变行为的影响机制及其酶法制备研究进展

类可可脂具备与可可脂一致的甘油三酯类型,以单不饱和对称型甘油三酯为主要组成,合理开发类可可脂资源可解决可可脂供不应求的困境,然而目前关于类可可脂的理解、制备和应用还存在诸多问题。介绍了具备工业化开发前景的类可可脂资源,论述了在单不饱和对称型甘油三酯体系中缺乏1-棕榈酸-2-油酸-3-硬脂酸甘油三酯（POSt）易引发巧克力起霜的机制,指出该问题已成为类可可脂应用的一大瓶颈;进而基于不同的脂质底物,提出酶法酯交换制备富含POSt类可可脂的技术路径。     

Comparison of classical and alternative extraction methods for the quantitative extraction of fat from plain chocolate and the subsequent application to the detection of added foreign fats to plain chocolate formulations

Three methods were compared for the quantitative extraction of fat from plain chocolate and cocoa products ranging from simple intermediary products such as cocoa butter, cocoa masses or liquors to market purchased chocolate samples. The classical method of extraction using an acid digestion followed by Soxhlet extraction was compared to two potentially alternative methods: microwave extraction and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE). The extracted intact triacylglycerols were then analysed directly by high temperature capillary gas chromatography (HT-GC). The results of extractions were compared by plotting the percentage areas of the three major triacylglycerols present one vs. the other. The results showed that the microwave extraction technique gave similar results to the more time-consuming classical extraction method. SFE gave results with higher standard deviations and a tendency to lower yields taking the acid digestion–Soxhlet method as the reference method. The minimal variations due to the methods did not impact the detection of foreign fats added to chocolate. However, the quantification of the foreign fats was impaired when using the SFE method compared to the other techniques due to the larger variations of replicate analyses of intact triacylglycerol profiles.     

Use of Palm Mid-Fraction in White Chocolate Formulation

Samples of two types of palm mid-fraction (PMF I, a commercial sample and PMF II, from a laboratory-scale acetone fractionation of PMF I) and a Malaysian deodorised cocoa butter sample were used as the main components in the fat phase for white chocolate formulation. The monounsaturatedtriacylglycerol contents of these fats were 853, 899 and 903 g kg⁻¹, respectively.All the fats had free fatty acid contents of less than 10 g kg⁻¹ and melting points in the range of 34·0–34·5°C. The solid fat content profiles for the three fats were very steep. Differential scanning calorimeter analyses showed that all the fats had two melting peaks, T1 and T2. Results of the study showed that the tempering time to produce a well-tempered chocolate using PMF I was longer than that using PMF II, whereas, the time to produce a well-tempered cocoa butter chocolate increased with increase in the tempering temperature. Chocolates made with PMF I and II were well tempered between 17 and 19°C and with cocoa butter at 23°C. Thermal analyses, carried out on the chocolate showed that PMF I and II produced three melting peaks, T1, T2′ and T2 whereas most of the cocoa butter chocolates exhibited only one melting peak, T2. Storage studies showed that most of the chocolates had good bloom resistance for up to 12 weeks storage.     

纯脂巧克力用脂及其分析、应用研究进展

近年来纯脂巧克力日渐受欢迎,但可可原料面临产量有限且不稳定的制约因素,限制了纯脂巧克力的发展。作为与可可脂组分及特性最为接近的可可脂替代品,类可可脂的原料来源广泛,产品稳定性有提升空间,并且在提升纯脂巧克力品质方面有改善作用,因此类可可脂的相关研究也获得国内外广泛关注。通过对可可脂及类可可脂的组成、结晶特性、分析方法及纯脂巧克力的耐霜、抗热品质改善等方面进行综述,以期对纯脂巧克力用脂、巧克力品质改善等提供相关参考。     

Fat Bloom and Chocolate Structure Studied by Mercury Porosimetry

The structure of dark chocolate samples was analyzed by mercury porosimetry in order to determine whether the formation of fat bloom was related to the presence of pores. The influence of cocoa butter concentration and tempering conditions on porosity were determined by using samples containing 29.5 or 31.9% fat, which were under, well or over-tempered. All Mercury porosimetry analysis confirmed the presence of a porous structure in all chocolates. Empty spaces represented about 1% of the whole volume of a well-tempered chocolate containing 31.9% cocoa butter but made up about 4% of the over-tempered chocolate. A well-tempered chocolate with only 29.5% cocoa butter showed the presence of about 2% empty spaces. From these observations and gas permeability a possible model for the microscopic structure was developed.     

Solid Fat Content,Pre-Crystallization Conditions,and Sensory Quality of Chocolate with Addition of Cocoa Butter Analogues

The objective of this study was to determine how the addition of two cocoa butter equivalents and cocoa butter improver affect the physical and sensory properties of chocolate. The laboratory-made chocolate samples were tempered at three different pre-crystallization temperatures (25, 27, and 29°C), using different concentrations (3, 5, and 7%) of two commercial cocoa butter equivalents as well as commercial cocoa butter improver of the chocolate. The nucleation time of the chocolate mass primarly depended on pre-crystallization temperature while the value of maximum torque of chocolate mass were influenced by both, pre-crystallization temperature and concentration of fats. Sensory evaluation revealed that cocoa butter equivalents were acceptable in chocolate formulation without producing a negative impact on the sensory quality, while usage of improver required adjustment of raw formulations or process parameters. The results of the instrumentally measured hardness revealed that addition of cocoa butter improver significantly (p > 0.05) increased hardness of chocolate samples.     

巧克力涂层基料油的理化性质及其相容性研究

选用棕榈油中间分提物(PMF)、全氢化棕榈仁液油(HPKOL)、可可脂(CB)作为巧克力涂层的基料油,对其理化性质及其相容性进行分析。结果表明,当两相体系PMF-HPKOL中PMF含量在30%以下时,共晶现象较弱。PMF和HPKOL混合可以作为涂层油脂配方,用于开发无反式脂肪酸巧克力涂层。添加可可脂会导致三相体系(PMF-HPKOL-CB)严重的共晶现象,因此在代可可脂涂层配方中不宜再添加可可脂。     

Uses for dairy ingredients in confectionery

Milk products are important ingredients for the confectionery industry. Milk solids may be added to chocolate either in the form of chocolate crumb or through the addition of milk powder. Roller-dried powder is preferable to spray-dried powder but is increasingly difficult to obtain. Milk fat has an advantage over other fats in that it is compatible with cocoa butter. Whey and whey-derived products such as protein concentrates and lactose or whey syrups also have potential applications, particularly in toffee manufacture where there are no legal restrictions on composition and some of the properties of the milk products may be advantageous.     

Cocoa butter equivalents prepared by blending fractionated palm stearin and shea stearin

The aim of this study was to assess the possibility of commercial use as a cocoa butter equivalent (CBE). The CBE was prepared by blending fractionated palm stearin and shea stearin in a weight ratio of 40:60 and contained 81.9% total symmetric monounsaturated triacyl-glycerols. The CBE was blended with cocoa butter in weight ratios (CBE:cocoa butter) of 5:95, 10:90, 20:80, 30:70, 40:60, 50:50, 60:40, 70:30, 80:20, and 90:10. The blends were evaluated for their fatty acid and triacylglycerol compositions, thermal melting/crystallization behaviors, and solid fat content. The 5:95, 10:90, 20:80, and 30:70 blends showed similar melting/crystallization temperature ranges and enthalpies to those of cocoa butter. Furthermore, they showed similar changes in solid fat content to those of cocoa butter as a function of temperature. These results indicate that the CBE can be blended with cocoa butter at 30% for the manufacture of chocolate products without significantly altering their physical properties.