Two-year experience of the Batista operation for non-ischemic cardiomyopathy

A temporal reproduction task is composed of two temporal estimation phases: encoding of the interval to be reproduced, followed by its reproduction. The effect of short-term memory processing on each of these phases was tested in two experiments. In Exp. 1, a memory set was presented, followed by two successive tones bounding the target interval to be reproduced. During the reproduction of the target interval, a probe was presented, and the subject ended the reproduction by pressing one of two keys, depending on the presence or absence of the probe in the memory set. In Exp. 2, probe recognition was required during the encoding of the interval to be reproduced. Whereas in Exp. 1 reproductions lengthened as a function of memory-set size, in Exp. 2 temporal reproductions decreased with set size. These results support attentional models of time estimation and suggest that short-term memory processing interrupts concurrent accumulation of temporal information.     

The mismeasure of memory: When retrieval fluency is misleading as a metamnemonic index.

The experiments address the degree to which retrieval fluency—the ease with which information is accessed from long-term memory—guides and occasionally misleads metamnemonic judgments. In each of 3 experiments, participants' predictions of their own future recall performance were examined under conditions in which probability or speed of retrieval at one time or on one task is known to be negatively related to retrieval probability on a later task. Participants' predictions reflected retrieval fluency on the initial task in each case, which led to striking mismatches between their predicted and actual performance on the later tasks. The results suggest that retrieval fluency is a potent but not necessarily reliable source of information for metacognitive judgments. Aspects of the results suggest that a basis on which better and poorer rememberers differ is the degree to which certain memory dynamics are understood, such as the fleeting nature of recency effects and the consequences of an initial retrieval. The results have pedagogical as well as theoretical implications, particularly with respect to the education of subjective assessments of ongoing learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of divided attention on encoding and retrieval processes: Assessment of attentional costs and a componential analysis.

Recent research has shown that divided attention at retrieval, in contrast to encoding, affected memory performance only minimally. This immunity at retrieval was associated with a significant secondary task cost. In this article the authors further investigated these effects employing a cued-recall task and a multimeasure approach with accuracy, latency, overall attentional costs, and the temporal distribution of attentional costs associated with the encoding and retrieval of low- and high-frequency words. The results of 2 experiments yielded a complex pattern of both similarities and differences between encoding and retrieval. Simultaneous inspection of the different measures of performance was instrumental in identifying 3 major types of retrieval (unsuccessful, slow, and fast), as well as different phases of the retrieval process, each of which was characterized by a different demand for attentional resources. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Divided attention and memory: Evidence of substantial interference effects at retrieval and encoding.

In 5 divided attention (DA) experiments, students (24 in each experiment) performed visual distracting tasks (e.g., recognition of words, word and digit monitoring) while either simultaneously encoding an auditory word list or engaging in oral free recall of the target word list. DA during retrieval, using either of the word-based distracting tasks, produced relatively larger interference effects than the digit-monitoring task. DA during encoding produced uniformly large interference effects, regardless of the type of distracting task. Results suggest that when attention is divided at retrieval, interference is created only when the memory and concurrent task compete for access to word-specific representational systems; no such specificity is necessary to create interference at encoding. During encoding, memory and concurrent tasks compete primarily for general resources, whereas during retrieval, they compete primarily for representational systems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Process interference and code overlap in dual-task performance.

Perceptual encoding processes have recently been shown to interfere with response selection in dual tasks (P. Jolicoeur & R. Dell'Acqua, 1998). Spatial cross-task compatibility (CTC) was varied to additionally manipulate code overlap across tasks. A new response-cuing paradigm was devised, in which a stimulus movement was used for later report in a perceptual task and a finger movement was used as response in a logically independent reaction task. Three experiments were conducted showing dual-task process interference, but shorter reaction times with CTC than without were also observed. This CTC priming effect was largest with high temporal overlap between the perception and reaction stimuli. The CTC effect was interpreted as resulting from overlap of code activation across tasks, whereas process interference seems to occur to prevent temporal overlap on the level of perceptual encoding and response retrieval processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attentional resources in timing: interference effects in concurrent temporal and nontemporal working memory tasks

Three experiments examined interference effects in concurrent temporal and nontemporal tasks. The timing task in each experiment required subjects to generate a series of 2- or 5-sec temporal productions. The nontemporal tasks were pursuit rotor tracking (Experiment 1), visual search (Experiment 2), and mental arithmetic (Experiment 3). Each nontemporal task had two levels of difficulty. All tasks were performed under both single- and dual-task conditions. A simple attentional allocation model predicts bidirectional interference between concurrent tasks. The main results showed the classic interference effect in timing. That is, the concurrent nontemporal tasks caused temporal productions to become longer (longer productions represent a shortening of perceived time) and/or more variable than did timing-only conditions. In general, the difficult version of each nontemporal task disrupted timing more than the easier version. The timing data also exhibited a serial lengthening effect, in which temporal productions became longer across trials. Nontemporal task performance showed a mixed pattern. Tracking and visual search were essentially unaffected by the addition of a timing task, whereas mental arithmetic was disrupted by concurrent timing. These results call for a modification of the attentional allocation model to incorporate the idea of specialized processing resources. Two major theoretical frameworks--multiple resource theory and the working memory model--are critically evaluated with respect to the resource demands of timing and temporal/nontemporal dual-task performance.     

Interactive Visual and Postvisual Processes and Their Roles in Form-Specific Memory.

Effects of depth of encoding on form-specific memory were examined. After viewing words (e.g., "bear") presented centrally during initial encoding, participants completed word stems (e.g., "BEA") presented laterally and pattern masked during subsequent test. When the encoding task was perceptual, letter-case specific memory was not observed, unlike in previous experiments without pattern masking. However, when the encoding task required both perceptual and conceptual processing, letter-case specific memory was observed in direct right-hemisphere, but not in direct left-hemisphere, test presentations, like in previous studies without pattern masking. Results were not influenced by whether stems were completed to form the first words that came to mind or words explicitly retrieved from encoding. Depth of encoding may influence form-specific memory through interactive processing of visual and postvisual information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Turning simple span into complex span: Time for decay or interference from distractors?

We investigated the effects of the duration and type of to-be-articulated distractors during encoding of a verbal list into short-term memory (STM). Distractors and to-be-remembered items alternated during list presentation, as in the complex-span task that underlies much of working-memory research. According to an interference model of STM, known as serial order in a box (SOB; Farrell & Lewandowsky, 2002), additional repeated articulations of the same word between list items should cause minimal further disruption of encoding into STM even though the retention interval for early list items is increased. SOB also predicts that the articulation of several different distractor items should lead to much enhanced disruption if the distractor interval is increased. Those predictions were qualitatively confirmed in 4 experiments that found that it is the type of distractors, not their total duration, that determines the success of encoding a list into STM. The results pose a challenge to temporal models of complex-span performance, such as the time-based resource sharing model (Barrouillet, Bernardin, & Camos, 2004). The results add to a growing body of evidence that memory for the short term is not exclusively governed by purely temporal processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An analysis of memory-based theories of automaticity.

Memory-based theories of automaticity predict that performance in a memory search task which is automatic will not require a representation of the memory set in working memory. The information contained in working memory was manipulated by inserting an interference task between the presentation of a memory set and a probe stimulus in a memory search task. The interference task prevented rehearsal, necessitating the retrieval of the memory set from long-term memory in variably mapped (VM) conditions. Performance in consistently mapped (CM) conditions provided strong support for memory-based theories of automaticity. With CM practice, both the effects of memory load and the effect of the interference task were eliminated. Furthermore, there was a temporal coupling in the reduction of these two effects with consistent practice. Monte Carlo simulations of memory-based automaticity predict such a temporal coupling. Automaticity is viewed as a continuum reflecting the relative contribution of the direct memory access of past solutions from long-term memory on performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Proactive interference and temporal context encoding after diazepam intake

Two experiments were designed to test whether the memory impairment induced by benzodiazepines (BZDs) is due to impaired memory for temporal context. In both experiments, subjects were administered either diazepam (15 mg oral) or placebo, and a standard BZD impairment on prose recall as well as a decreased subjective arousal was found. Key tasks to explore temporal context memory were an A-B A-C proactive interference paradigm and a list discrimination task. Initial learning of both groups on these tasks was broadly matched. In experiment 1, diazepam did not increase susceptibility to proactive interference using semantically related words. However, in experiment 2, using unrelated word pairs, diazepam markedly increased the number of prior list intrusions. Furthermore, after diazepam intake, subjects were clearly impaired in learning unrelated word pairs. Subjects after diazepam intake were not impaired in the list discrimination task. We conclude that (1) diazepam impairs the forming of new associations, whether this is the formation of links between two or more targets or between targets and context, (2) a temporal context encoding deficit cannot account for a broader diazepam-induced memory impairment.     

Effects of bilingualism, aging, and semantic relatedness on memory under divided attention.

We examined how encoding and retrieval processes were affected by manipulations of attention, and whether the degree of semantic relatedness between words in the memory and distracting task modulated these effects. We also considered age and bilingual status as mediating factors. Monolingual and bilingual younger and older adults studied a list of words from a single semantic category presented auditorily, and later free recalled them aloud. During either study or retrieval, participants concurrently performed a distracting task requiring size decisions to words from either the same or a different semantic category as the words in the memory task. The greatest disruptions of memory from divided attention (DA) were for encoding rather than retrieval. The effect of semantic relatedness was significant only for DA at encoding. Older age and bilingualism were associated with lower recall scores in all conditions, but these factors did not influence the magnitude of memory interference. The results suggest that encoding is more sensitive to semantic similarity in a distracting task than is retrieval. The role of attention at encoding and retrieval is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trauma Films, Information Processing, and Intrusive Memory Development.

Three experiments indexed the effect of various concurrent tasks, while watching a traumatic film, on intrusive memory development. Hypotheses were based on the dual-representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder (C. R. Brewin, T. Dalgleish, & S. Joseph, 1996). Nonclinical participants viewed a trauma film under various encoding conditions and recorded any spontaneous intrusive memories of the film over the following week in a diary. Changes in state dissociation, heart rate, and mood were also measured. As predicted, performing a visuospatial pattern tapping task at encoding significantly reduced the frequency of later intrusions, whereas a verbal distraction task increased them. Intrusive memories were largely unrelated to recall and recognition measures. Increases in dissociation and decreases in heart rate during the film were also associated with later intrusions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A Multinomial Model of Event-Based Prospective Memory.

Prospective memory is remembering to perform an action in the future. The authors introduce the 1st formal model of event-based prospective memory, namely, a multinomial model that includes 2 separate parameters related to prospective memory processes. The 1st measures preparatory attentional processes, and the 2nd measures retrospective memory processes. The model was validated in 4 experiments. Manipulations of instructions to place importance on either the prospective memory task or the background task (Experiments 1 and 2) and manipulations of distinctiveness of prospective memory targets (Experiment 2) had expected effects on model parameters, as did a manipulation of the difficulty of prospective memory target encoding (Experiments 3 and 4). An alternative model was also evaluated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neonatal Thyroxine Stimulation Accelerates the Maturation of Both Locomotor and Memory Processes in Mice.

In two experiments mice were injected with thyroxine on Postnatal Days 1, 2, and 3, and the subsequent effects upon the development of the swimming reflex and the emergence of instrumental learning/memory processes were examined. In agreement with past studies, early thyroxine treatment accelerated the maturation of swimming capacities and general physical development compared with littermate controls receiving saline injections. In the second study, thyroxine- and saline-treated mice received 25 training trials on a shock-escape T-maze task at 7, 9, 11, or 13 days of age with a retention test 24 hr later. The results indicated that while learning was equivalent within each of the ages between the treatment groups, onset of 24-hr retention capacity occurred approximately 2 days earlier in the thyroxine-treated mice than in controls. In addition, a performance deficit was observed in the thyroxine mice at the oldest age tested, in agreement with previous reports. The results of these experiments suggest that early hyperthyroidism results in earlier maturation of both locomotor and memory processes, followed by later performance deficits. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Working memory, response selection, and effortful processing in rats with medial prefrontal lesions.

Examined the effects of lesions of the prelimbic area of the prefrontal cortex on acquisition and retention of nonmatching (NMTS) and matching-to-sample (MTS) tasks. 64 male rats participated. Both tasks involved a reference and a working memory component, but only working memory was impaired by the lesions. A comparison of the 2 tasks revealed quantitatively similar deficits in postoperatively trained rats. In preoperatively trained rats, however, the deficits were more important in the MTS task than in the NMTS task. In addition, an effect of interference between successive trials was observed in the NMTS task but not in the MTS task. Perseverative tendencies were observed in the MTS task only. Results suggest that prefrontal lesions induce working memory deficits as a result of poor temporal encoding and increased susceptibility to interference, and impair effortful processing, such as that engaged in response selection mechanisms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Event-based prospective memory and executive control of working memory

In 5 experiments, the character of concurrent cognitive processing was manipulated during an event-based prospective memory task. High- and low-load conditions that differed only in the difficulty of the concurrent task were tested in each experiment. In Experiments 1 and 2, attention-demanding tasks from the literature on executive control produced decrements in prospective memory. In Experiment 3, attention was divided by different loads of articulatory suppression that did not ultimately lead to decrements in prospective memory. A high-load manipulation of a visuospatial task requiring performance monitoring resulted in worse prospective memory in Experiment 4, whereas in Experiment 5 a visuospatial task with little monitoring did not. Results are discussed in terms of executive functions, such as planning and monitoring, that appear to be critical to successful event-based prospective memory.     

Hierarchical encoding of behavior: Translating perception into action.

[Retraction Notice: A retraction for this article was reported in Vol 137(4) of Journal of Experimental Psychology: General (see record 2008-15679-005). All authors retract this article. Co-author Tversky and co-author Hard believe that the research results cannot be relied upon; Sandra C. Lozano takes full responsibility for the need to retract this article.] People encode goal-directed behaviors, such as assembling an object, by segmenting them into discrete actions, organized as goal-subgoal hierarchies. Does hierarchical encoding contribute to observational learning? Participants in 3 experiments segmented an object assembly task into coarse and fine units of action and later performed it themselves. Hierarchical encoding, measured by segmentation patterns, correlated with more accurate and more hierarchically structured performance of the later assembly task. Furthermore, hierarchical encoding increased when participants (a) segmented coarse units first, (b) explicitly looked for hierarchical structure, and (c) described actions while segmenting them. Improving hierarchical encoding always led to improvements in learning, as well as a surprising shift toward encoding and executing actions from the actor's spatial perspective instead of the participants' own. Hierarchical encoding facilitates observational learning by organizing perceived actions into a representation that can serve as an action plan. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory and data-driven control of selective attention continuous tasks.

Two experiments with 46 undergraduates suggest that information about the physical characteristics of complex signals is stored, briefly, independently of information about mapping rules and information about symbol names. Two further experiments with 20 undergraduates confirm that information about the physical characteristics of displays can be available independently of higher-order information. They further suggest that these 2 kinds of information may have different temporal persistence in the human information processing system, and may independently suffer selective interference from different kinds of concurrent activity. Results lend support to a pathway activation model for immediate memory that is discussed in relation to the idea that temporal persistence of memory traces depends on the levels to which they are processed. (French summary) (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental changes in time estimation: Comparing childhood and old age.

Participants from ages 5 to 99 years completed 2 time estimation tasks: a temporal generalization task and a temporal bisection task. Developmental differences in overall levels of performance were found at both ends of the life span and were more marked on the generalization task than the bisection task. Older adults and children performed at lower levels than young adults, but there were also qualitative differences in the patterns of errors made by the older adults and the children. To capture these findings, the authors propose a new developmental model of temporal generalization and bisection. The model assumes developmental changes across the life span in the noisiness of initial perceptual encoding and across childhood in the extent to which long-term memory of time intervals is distorted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)