城镇住宅区户外环境设计初探

指出住宅区户外环境设计面临的新情况、新任务,分析了老年人、残疾人的体能及心态特征,从住宅区户外活动空间的设计,步行空间设计等方面探讨了如何进行户外环境设计,以期创建优美和谐的无障碍住区环境。     

A comfortable wind climate for outdoor relaxation in urban areas

All sorts of urban outdoor areas have been designed for relaxation. One important condition for relaxation is a pleasant climate. Sun, wind and temperature are important components of this climate.

The velocity of the wind in particular offers possibilities for regulation by application of measures for providing shelter. In the Dutch climate, it is found that a reduction of wind velocity to 1.5 m s−1 or less would remove some share of the negative effects of wind on the relaxation function of the city.     

Indoor ultrafine particles and childhood asthma: exploring a potential public health concern

Exposure to airborne particulate matter has a negative effect on respiratory health in both children and adults. The ultrafine fraction of particulate air pollution is of particular interest because of its increased ability to cause oxidative stress and inflammation in the lungs. We reviewed the literature, and to date findings suggest that ultrafine particles (UFPs) may play an important role in triggering asthma symptoms. Furthermore, we believe that indoor UFP exposures may be particularly important because people spend the majority of their time indoors where sources of these contaminants are often present. While several epidemiological studies have examined the respiratory effects of ambient UFP exposures, the relationship between indoor UFP exposures and childhood asthma has yet to be examined in clinical or epidemiological studies. However, the portable instrumentation necessary to conduct such investigations is increasingly available, and we expect that this issue will be addressed in the near future. Therefore, the aim of this article is to provide a general review of UFP toxicity as related to childhood asthma in order to draw attention to a potentially important public health concern. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: A number of indoor sources of ultrafine particles (UFPs) have been identified, but the health effects of indoor UFP exposures remain largely unexplored. The potential respiratory effects of such exposures seem most concerning because these particles are known to cause oxidative stress and inflammation in the lungs. Subsequently, indoor UFP exposures may contribute to the exacerbation of asthma symptoms in susceptible individuals. This paper provides a review of UFP toxicity as related to childhood asthma, and to date evidence suggests that further investigation into the respiratory effects of indoor UFP exposures is warranted.     

Indoor/outdoor relationships of size-resolved particle concentrations in naturally ventilated school environments

Assessment of indoor air quality in typical classrooms is vital to students’ health and their performance. The present study was designed to monitor indoor and outdoor size-resolved particle concentrations in a naturally ventilated classroom and investigate factors influencing their levels and relationships. The experiments were performed, at normal ventilation condition with doors and windows opened, on the top floor of a public school building near a busy commercial area of Chiang Mai, Thailand. The particle number concentrations were measured using an optical counter with four size intervals between 0.3 and 5.0 μm. The dataset was collected during weekdays and weekends with a 24 h sampling period over November and December 2005. It was observed that the median indoor particle number concentrations during daytime for 0.3–0.5, 0.5–1.0, 1.0–2.5, and 2.5–5.0 μm size intervals were about 1.6×10⁸, 1.7×10⁷, 1.2×10⁶, and 4.1×10⁵ particles/m³, respectively. It was also found that concentrations at weekends were slightly higher those measured on weekdays, and at night, appeared to be higher than daytime. Indoor particles were observed to exhibit similar temporal variation pattern with outdoor particles. Results suggested that a significant contribution to indoor particles was from penetration of outdoor particles, whereas indoor sources generated from occupant activity did not show strong evidence. High outdoor particle loading and high air exchange rate were thought to be predominant causes. Ratios of indoor-to-outdoor (I/O) particle concentrations varied in a relatively narrow range from 0.69 to 0.88 with average values well below 1. The I/O ratios were in the range from 0.74 to 0.88 for submicrometer particles and from 0.69 to 0.80 for supermicrometer particles.     

Indoor NH3 variation and its relationship with outdoor NH3 in urban Beijing

Online measurements of indoor and outdoor ammonia (NH₃) were conducted at a university building in Haidian District, Beijing, to investigate their variation characteristics, indoor-outdoor differences, influencing factors, and possible contribution of indoor NH₃ to atmospheric NH₃. Indoor NH3 mixing ratios varied greatly among the rooms of the same building. Indoor NH₃ mixing ratio peaked at 1.43 ppm in a toilet. Both indoor and outdoor NH₃ mixing ratios exhibited higher values during summer and lower values during winter and correlated significantly with relative humidity and temperature. Moreover, their daily mean mixing ratios were significantly correlated with each other. But indoor and outdoor NH₃ in cold months exhibited quite different diurnal variations. During the measurement period, indoor NH₃ mixing ratios were substantially higher than those outdoors, by an average factor of 3.1 (1.0–6.6). This indicates that indoor NH₃ could be a source of outdoor atmospheric NH₃. The contribution of indoor NH₃ to atmospheric NH₃ was estimated at 0.7 ± 0.5 Gg NH₃-N·a⁻¹, accounting for approximately 1.0 ± 0.7% of total emissions in Beijing and being comparable to industry, biomass combustion, and soil emissions, but lower than transportation emissions. The influence of COVID-19 control measures caused indoor and outdoor NH₃ mixing ratios to decrease by 22.8% and 19.3%, respectively—attributable to decreased human activity and traffic flow.     

Highways and some ecological problems of urban areas

The paper presents one of the first attempts at a multidisciplinary study of engineering geological and economic problems arising in the course of construction and operation of transport systems. It is shown that vibration (an obligatory attribute to highway impact on the geological environment) and frost heaving (manifesting in deformations and ruining of road surfacing and other elements of highways) are observed almost everywhere and can be considered among the most effective factors causing changes in the geological environment. The paper contains case studies and an estimation of the highway impact on the ecological situation in various regions.     

Indoor/outdoor relationships of carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen in domestic homes with roadside, urban and rural locations in a central Indian region

Indoor air quality (IAQ) has been a matter of public concern these days whereas air pollution is normally monitored outdoors as part of obligations under the National air quality strategies. Much little is known about levels of air pollution indoors. Simultaneous measurements of indoor and outdoor carbon monoxide (CO) and oxides of nitrogen (NO and NO2) concentrations were conducted at three different environments, i.e. rural, urban and roadside in Agra, India, using YES - 205 multigas monitor during the winter season, i.e. October 2002-February 2003. A statistical correlation analysis of indoor concentration levels with outdoor concentrations was carried out. CO was maximum at roadside locations with indoor concentrations 2072.5 +/- 372 p.p.b. and outdoor concentrations 1220 +/- 281 p.p.b. (R2 = 0.005). Oxides of nitrogen were found maximum at urban site; NO concentration was 385 +/- 211 and 637 +/- 269 p.p.b. for indoors and outdoors respectively (R2 = 0.90792), where as NO2 concentration was 255 +/- 146 p.p.b. for indoors and 460 +/- 225 p.p.b. for outdoors (R2 = 0939464). Although indoor concentration at all the houses of the three sites have a positive correlation with outdoor concentration, CO variation indoors was very less due to outdoor sources. An activity schedule of inside and outside these homes were also prepared to see its influence and concentrations of pollutants. As standards for indoor air were not available for the Indian conditions these were compared with the known standards of other countries, where as outdoor concentrations were compared with the standards given by the Central Pollution Control board, which shows that indoor concentrations of both NO(x) and CO lie below permissible limits but outdoor concentrations of NO(x) cross the standard limits. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: 'India currently bears the largest number of indoor air pollution (IAP) related health problems in world. An estimated 500,000 women & children die in India each year due to IAP-related cause--this is 25% of estimated IAP-related deaths worldwide. This study will be useful for policy makers, health related officials, academicians and Scientists who have interest in countries of developing world'.     

城乡联动 发展循环经济

可持续发展的实质是资源、经济、人口和环境的协调与和谐,是每一要素的充分利用和发挥,不损害其中任何一要素,循环经济是实现可持续发展的重要途径。城市与农村是两大平行的生产、生活系统,是人类社会的两大聚居形态,城乡的和谐及协调是经济、人口和环境的可持续发展的基础和前提。     

The PM2.5 and PM10 particles in urban areas of Taiwan

This study conducted an atmospheric aerosol sampling to measure the PM10 (particles < 10 microns in aerodynamic diameter) and PM2.5 (particles < 2.5 microns in aerodynamic diameter) mass concentrations from October 1996 to June 1997 in northern (Taipei), central (Taichung) and southern (Kaohsiung), the three largest cities of Taiwan. Seventy-eight samples were obtained to measure the mass concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 from nine sampling sites. According to those results, the PM10 mass concentrations in Taipei, Taichung and Kaohsiung were 42.19, 60.99 and 77.10 micrograms/m3, respectively. The corresponding PM2.5 mass concentrations were 23.09, 39.97 and 48.47 micrograms/m3, respectively. The PM2.5 fraction accounted for 61-67% of the PM10 mass in central and southern Taiwan, but was lower (54-59%) in northern Taiwan. Some samples in which the PM2.5 fraction was overwhelmingly dominant could reach as high as 80-95% of the PM10 mass. In addition, the PM2.5, PM10 levels and PM2.5/PM10-2.5 (particles with aerodynamic diameters ranging from 2.5 to 10 microns) ratios in metropolitan Taiwan significantly fluctuated from site-to-site and over time. Moreover, ambient daily PM2.5 and PM10-2.5 mass concentrations did not correlate well with each other at most of the sampling sites, indicated that they originated from different kinds of sources and emitted variedly over time.     

关于桐乡城乡协调发展战略探讨

一、桐乡城市化和城乡关系发展的现状 (一)城镇化水平低 2003年,浙江桐乡市城镇化水平为40%,低于50%的全省城镇化平均水平,而且呈现差距拉大趋势。目前桐乡市人均GDP已超过3000美元,其工业化与城镇化水平明显不相称。导致这种现象的主要原因是:桐乡自改革开放以来走过的是一条以小城镇为城镇化主要载体、以小规模和分散化的乡镇与个私经济为工业化主要模式的发展道路; 中心城市在全市经济社会发展中的组织领导作用极为有限,2002年城区人口14.1万(包括行政区划调整后的农业人口5.8万),城市现状用地12.8平方公里,城市规模明显小于省内兄…     

Indoor and outdoor BTX levels in German cities

On the basis of the ongoing study INGA (INdoor exposure and Genetics in Asthma), Germany's most detailed and standardized epidemiological study on indoor exposure to both allergens in house dust and volatile compounds in the air of the home environment has been performed. The purpose of this paper is to describe the spatial and seasonal variability of indoor and outdoor BTX (Benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, ortho-xylene, meta- and para-xylene) concentrations for the study period from June 1995 to November 1996. Within this framework, air concentrations of volatile organic compounds (BTX) were measured in 204 households in Erfurt (Eastern Germany) and 201 households in Hamburg (Western Germany). BTX sampling was conducted over one week using OVM 3500 passive diffusion sampling devices in the indoor (living room and bedroom) and outdoor environment (outside the window of the living room). Indoor and outdoor median BTX concentrations in Erfurt were slightly, but significantly higher than those in Hamburg. This gap was most pronounced in the levels of indoor toluene (37.3 microg/m3 for Erfurt and 20.5 microg/m3 for Hamburg, P < 0.0001). In both cities, winter indoor and outdoor concentrations for the five compounds exceeded the summer values. Outdoor concentrations of ethyl benzene and ortho-xylene were very low (50% < L.D.). In general, the indoor BTX air concentrations were significantly higher than the outdoor concentra- tions, the lowest I/O ratios were found in the case of benzene. Living room and bedroom values for the five compounds were highly correlated (Spearman coefficient 0.5-0.9). Despite the better insulation of the homes in West Germany, no indication for the expected higher indoor concentrations of BTX in the West could be found. The strong and yet undiscovered indoor source for toluene in East Germany might lead to a further increase in the indoor air load in those homes in the East, which undergo renovations which will lead to improved insulation.     

Trace metal determination in total atmospheric deposition in rural and urban areas

The wet, dry and total atmospheric depositions of some metals (Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Na, Pb and Zn) were sampled at two sites and atmospheric fallout fluxes were determined for these locations. This work, led by two different research groups, allowed to reach two main goals: to define a simple analytical procedure to secure accurate shipboard sampling and analysis of atmospheric deposition, and to assess anthropogenic impacts of heavy metals to the environment. The first step about the validation step showed that the prevalent deposition type was dry deposition which represents 40, 60 and 80% for Cd, Cu and Pb, respectively. This prevalence of dry deposition in total atmospheric fallout supported the necessity of funnel wall rinsing which contains 30, 50 and 40% of collected Cd, Cu and Pb, respectively. Moreover, the reproducibility of atmospheric deposition collection was determined. The second step was performed by comparing two sampling sites. A rural sampling site, situated in Morvan's regional park (250 km south-east of Paris), was chosen for its isolation from any local and regional contamination sources. Fluxes obtained in this area were compared with those obtained at an urban site (Créteil, suburb of Paris) allowing comparison between urban and rural areas and demonstrating the impact of anthropogenic activities on atmospheric deposition of Cr, Cu and Pb.     

Airborne endotoxin concentrations in indoor and outdoor particulate matter and their predictors in an urban city

Endotoxins are an important biological component of particulate matter and have been associated with adverse effects on human health. There have been some recent studies on airborne endotoxin concentrations. We collected fine (PM_2.5) and coarse (PM_10‐2.5) particulate matter twice on weekdays and weekends each for 48 hour, inside and outside 55 homes in an urban city in Japan. Endotoxin concentrations in both fractions were measured using the kinetic Limulus Amebocyte Lysate assay. The relationships between endotoxin concentrations and household characteristics were evaluated for each fraction. Both indoor and outdoor endotoxin concentrations were higher in PM_2.5 than in PM_10‐2.5. In both PM_2.5 and PM_10‐2.5, indoor endotoxin concentrations were higher than outdoor concentrations, and the indoor endotoxin concentrations significantly correlated with outdoor concentrations in each fraction (R²=0.458 and 0.198, respectively). Indoor endotoxin concentrations in PM_2.5 were significantly higher in homes with tatami or carpet flooring and in homes with pets, and lower in homes that used air purifiers. Indoor endotoxin concentrations in PM_10‐2.5 were significantly higher in homes with two or more children and homes with tatami or carpet flooring. These results showed that the indoor endotoxin concentrations were associated with the household characteristics in addition to outdoor endotoxin concentrations.     

Comparison of MTBE concentrations in groundwater of urban and nonurban areas in Germany

The occurrence of the gasoline oxygenate methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) in groundwater samples from known fuel-contaminated sites (n=29 samples), nonurban (n=74) and urban sites (n=67) in Germany was investigated. The analyses revealed detection frequencies of 58% (contaminated sites), 24% (nonurban sites) and 63% (urban sites) at a detection limit of 0.01 microgL(-1). Median (maximum) MTBE concentrations were calculated for nonurban and urban samples as 0.18 microgL(-1) (2.2 microgL(-1)) and 0.06 microgL(-1) (48 microg L(-1)). The data from nonurban samples revealed MTBE detections mainly at public supply wells with higher pumping rates than monitoring wells. MTBE was more frequently detected in urban samples, most probably due to the higher atmospheric input and direct liquid emissions from motorways or gas stations. Higher concentrations above 1.0 microgL(-1) in urban areas were found in wells located at industrial sites, where also a MTBE plume was accidentally detected during the study. The prevalence of MTBE in shallow aquifers was comparable to those in the USA.     

山东省城乡一体化规划的探索与实践

城乡一体化规划是一种新的规划类型和当前的规划热点。本文总结了山东省城乡一体化规划的探索与实践,对该类规划在规划体系中的地位和作用、不同空间尺度的城乡一体化规划的编制方法、内容和深度进行了探讨。认为城乡一体化规划是市县域范围内最大的规划,在"三规合一"中应代替城市总体规划,与国民经济和社会发展规划、土地利用总体规划相协调。     

Job accessibility and ethnic minority employment in urban and rural areas in Taiwan

This study is an empirical exploration of the effects of job accessibility on ethnic minority employment in urban and rural areas. The urban sample is composed of Taiwanese aborigines who migrated to cities from their native locales while the rural sample is composed of aborigines who reside in aboriginal villages. Sample data are collected through questionnaire surveys conducted in 2009 and 2012. Results indicate that rural aborigines have a lower unemployment rate but less stable employment than urban aborigines. Employed rural aborigines receive slightly higher salaries and incur higher commuting cost than employed urban aborigines. However, regardless of where the aborigines live (i.e., urban or rural areas), increased job accessibility is not related to employment and employment stability, but significantly increases aboriginal salary. Moreover, improved job accessibility increases the commuting time of rural aborigines, but its effects on the commuting time of urban aborigines depend on the travel mode. Empirical evidence implies that migrating to cities can be both beneficial and fruitless for aboriginal employment, and that the effects of accessibility on the employment of Taiwanese aborigines in urban and rural areas are both similar to and different from those of non‐aborigines documented in previous studies.