Effects of Reduced Sodium Chloride and Added Phosphates on Physical and Sensory Properties of Turkey Frankfurters

Turkey frankfurters containing 20 and 40% salt (NaCl) reductions were manufactured and evaluated in comparison to a standard formulation containing 2.5% sodium chloride. Additionally, either 0.4% sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP), sodium hexametaphosphate (HMP), or sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP) were incorporated into frankfurters containing similar salt reductions. Phosphates improved emulsion stability and yields, especially in formulas with 40% salt reductions. TPP increased frankfurter firmness compared to that provided by SAPP or HMP regardless of salt level, but TPP had a deleterious effect on freshness at the 2.0% salt level. SAPP was more effective than HMP in improving plumpness and enhancing salt flavor intensity. Overall, SAPP appeared to provide greater benefits than either HMP or TPP as a single polyphosphate for reduced salt turkey frankfurters.     

EFFECTS OF SALT REDUCTION ON THE RHEOLOGICAL AND GELATION PROPERTIES OF WHITE AND DARK POULTRY MEAT BATTERS

The rheological and gelation properties of poultry dark and white meat batters prepared with average and reduced NaCl levels (2%, 1% and 0%) and with 0.5% hexametaphosphate (HMP) added to the 1% salt batters were studied. Lowering the salt content decreased the shear stress in both the white and dark meat at the same shear rates. HMP addition to the 1% NaCl treatments increased the shear stress in the dark meat but not in the white meat at the same shear rates using a concentric cylinder viscometer. The relationship between the rotor angular velocity and shear stress of the raw batters was nonlinear and resembled a pseudoplastic behaviour with yield stress in all cases. Plots of the modulus of rigidity (G) versus cooking temperature indicated that white meat always exhibited higher G than that of dark meat. The highest G was observed in the white meat with 2.0% NaCl and the lowest in the dark meat with no salt. The batters with no salt also exhibited gel formation, however with lower G values.     

Formulation and Copping Temperature Effects on Beef Frankfurters

Frankfurters were manufactured using four fat and added water (AW) formulations (10% fat/30% AW; 15%/25%; 20%/20%; 30%/10%) and processed at chopping temperatures 9, 12, or 15°C. The batters were stuffed into cellulose casings, thermally processed, chilled and vacuum-packaged. Frankfurters were analyzed for proximate composition, textural properties and purge. No differences occurred among treatments for processing yield (89.8%± 1.83). Frankfurters chopped to 12°C had the highest (P < 0.05) Kramer peak force values. As expected, purge increased in all treatments as storage time increased (P < 0.05). As AW increased, hardness and cohesiveness decreased and purge increased. Water level and fat reduction were the most critical factors affecting quality.     

Interaction of Reduced NaCl, Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate and pH on the Antimicrobial Activity of Comminuted Meat Products

Meat (beef-pork) batters were formulated with NaCl (2.3% and 4.1% brine) and with 0.5% sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP) in combination with 2.3% brine. The adjusted pH of raw batters resulted in cooked meat pH values of 5.7, 6.0, and 6.3. Inoculated (Clostridium sporogenes spores) and uninoculated batters in cans were cooked to 70°C and stored for abuse at 27°C. Microbial growth was delayed and the short shelf-life of low brine (2.3%) products was extended with SAPP in the formulation. The antimicrobial properties of treatments with SAPP were due to both declining pH and presence of phosphate in the formulation. Potential mechanisms of microbial inhibition by SAPP are discussed.     

剪切时间对肉糜中微粒分散特性的影响

为形成乳化性良好的肉糜,研究不同剪切时间对肉糜中脂肪微粒粒径的影响。实验以猪背最长肌和背膘为原料肉,在3000r/min剪切速率下分别斩拌1、3、5、7min制成生肉糜,利用激光粒度分析仪测定不同剪切时间下肉糜中脂肪微粒大小和粒度分布特点。结果显示：剪切5min和7min条件下,肉糜中脂肪微粒粒径比较小、粒度分布集中,且无显著性差异。     

Effects of Sodium Chloride Reduction and Polyphosphate Addition on Clostridium Botulinum Toxin Production in Turkey Frankfurters

Mechanically deboned turkey meat emulsions were made with 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, or 3.0% salt (NaCl), or with combinations of 1.5% or 2.0% salt with 0.4% sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP), sodium hexametaphosphate (HMP), or sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP). Sodium nitrite levels were constant at 150 ppm. Emulsions were inoculated with a mixture of 10 strains of C. botulinum (10³/g) and incubated at 27°C. Increasing NaCl content from 1.0% to 3.0% delayed toxin production by 3 days on the average. Toxin production was detected earlier when TPP was added, HMP had no effect, and SAPP delayed toxin production.     

Stability and Gel Strength of Frankfurter Batters Made with Reduced NaCl

A detailed examination of fat emulsification and water-binding capacities in frankfurter batters and the cooked batters' textural responses to lowered levels of added sodium chloride was conducted. In response surface analyses of water and fat exudations and gel strength with varying compositions of fat, water, meat, and salt, the area of maximum stability decreased and moved toward a higher fat content when the salt was reduced from 2.5 to 1.5%. Gel strength increased with increasing content of lean meat and decreased with lowered salt levels. When salt, pH, chopping temperature, and cooking temperature were varied from the standard conditions, water exudate was generally affected first and most intensely while the gel strength was second. Fat release did not occur until more extreme conditions were encountered.     

鹰嘴豆分离蛋白对减盐猪肉糜凝胶品质的影响

为探究鹰嘴豆分离蛋白(chickpea protein isolate,CPI)不同添加量对2种盐含量(质量分数1.4%和2%)猪肉糜凝胶品质的影响,将猪瘦肉与猪背膘斩拌成肉糜,分别设置不同盐含量和鹰嘴豆分离蛋白的处理组并加热制成凝胶。测定猪肉糜凝胶的色泽、乳化稳定性、质构、水分分布和流变特性。结果表明,在不添加鹰嘴豆分离蛋白的条件下,1.4%食盐质量分数的猪肉糜凝胶的汁液流失和硬度值显著高于2%食盐浓度的猪肉糜凝胶;相同食盐浓度条件下,随着CPI添加量的增加,猪肉糜凝胶的a^*值、b^*值、硬度、弹性、咀嚼性以及不易流动水比例均显著增加(P<0.05),动态流变储能模量G'值升高,汁液流失率显著降低(P<0.05),并在CPI添加量为1.2%时达到最大值或最小值;在相同CPI添加量条件下,1.4%食盐1.2% CPI的猪肉糜凝胶的储能模量G'值高于2%食盐1.2% CPI的猪肉糜凝胶,且2组凝胶的不易流动水比例、乳化稳定性、质构特性无显著差异(P>0.05)。综上,鹰嘴豆分离蛋白的添加能够在降低食盐用量的同时提升猪肉糜的凝胶品质。     

Effect of Different Processing Methods and Salt Content on the Physicochemical and Rheological Properties of Meat Batters

The physicochemical and rheological properties of raw and cooked batters produced by a chopping or beating process with various amounts of salt content were studied. Various meat batters were made up for this purpose: the batter processed by chopping with 2% salt, by beating with 1% salt and 2% salt, respectively. Compared with the chopping, the beating cooked batters had higher L* value, hardness, G’ value at 80°C, and lower cooking loss. Using the beating process, the batter with 1% salt had lower L* values, hardness, springiness, and higher cooking loss than the 2% salt. From the micrographs, the batters produced by beating process exhibited more uniform and compact microstructure than the chopping. The result of low-field nuclear magnetic resonance exhibited that the batters of beating had higher water holding capacity than the chopping. Overall, the beating process enabled lowering of the salt content, cooking loss, and making the cooked batter more hard and elastic.     

食盐与高温对猪肉糜品质的影响

本文研究不同食盐添加量与高温蒸煮对猪肉糜品质的影响。通过对猪肉糜的蒸煮得率、色泽、质构、流变等进行分析,研究不同食盐添加量(1%、2%、3%)和蒸煮高温(105、115和125 ℃)对猪肉糜品质的影响。结果表明:随着温度的升高,相同食盐添加量猪肉糜的a*值、b*值显著升高(p<0.05),L*值、蒸煮得率、弹性、内聚性下降显著(p<0.05);相同温度下,1%食盐处理组的L*值最小,a*值和b*值最大;3%食盐添加量显著提高(p<0.05)蒸煮肉糜的硬度、弹性和内聚性。加热到105 ℃以后,随着温度升高不同食盐添加量猪肉糜的储能模量(G')呈下降趋势,3%食盐添加量猪肉糜的G'最高。综上所述,高温能够降低猪肉糜的品质,3%食盐添加量在105 ℃时猪肉糜的品质最佳。     

Protein-Protein Interaction and Fat and Water Binding in Comminuted Flesh Products

The possible role of protein-protein interaction in influencing the water and fat binding capacity of comminuted flesh products was studied. Water and fat binding by meat batters diminish when temperatures exceed 16°C during comminution. The loss of binding capacity was partially reversible, and cooling the batters to 0°C by addition of dry ice and rechopping allowed a partial recovery of the fat and water binding capacity. A cause and effect relationship between the change in fat and water binding by meat batters on chopping and protein-protein interaction in actomyosin solutions was demonstrated. Protein-protein interaction results in molecular aggregation and when measured as an increase in light scattering absorbance at 320 nm by a protein solution, the reaction was shown to be reversible between 4 and 30°C. When actomyosin solutions extracted from meat samples showed reduced protein-protein interaction in the temperature range used in chopping, the batters made from these meats also showed the least loss in fat and water binding capacity with prolonged chopping. Controlling temperatures during chopping within a range where protein-protein interaction in actomyosin solutions was found to be minimal, allowed prolonged chopping without loss in fat and water binding.     

Effects of protein level and fat/oil on emulsion stability,texture, microstructure and color of meat batters

Beef meat batters formulated with increasing protein level (10–15%) and containing 25% beef fat were compared to batters prepared with 25% canola oil. Emulsion stability of the canola oil treatments was higher (less separation during cooking) at the 10–13% protein level compared to the beef fat treatments. However, above 13% protein this was reversed and the canola oil treatments showed high fat and liquid separation, which did not occur at all in the beef fat treatments. This indicates differences in stabilization of fat versus oil in such meat emulsions. Hardness of the cooked meat batters showed significantly (P < 0.05) higher values when the protein level was raised, and was higher in canola oil than in beef fat meat emulsions at similar protein levels. Products’ chewiness were higher in the canola oil treatments compared to the beef fat emulsions. Lightness decreased and redness increased in canola oil batters as the protein level was raised. The micrographs revealed the formation of larger fat globules in the beef fat emulsions compared to the canola oil meat emulsions. The canola oil treatment with 14% protein started to show fat globule coalescence, which could be related to the reduced emulsion stability.     

LIPID AND CHOLESTEROL OXIDATION,COLOR CHANGES,AND VOLATILE PRODUCTION IN IRRADIATED RAW PORK BATTERS WITH DIFFERENT FAT CONTENT1

An emulsion-type product was prepared to determine the effect of irradiation on lipid and cholesterol oxidation, color change, and volatile production in raw pork with different fat contents. Lipid oxidation increased with an increase in fat content or irradiation dose. Irradiated batters had higher cholesterol oxides than nonirradiated, and the major cholesterol oxides formed in irradiated pork batters were 7α- and 7β-hydroxycholesterol. Hunter color a- and b-values of raw pork batters were decreased by irradiation regardless of fat content. Irradiation increased the amount ofvolatiles significantly. Although lipid oxidation of high fat products (10 and 15% fat) was higher than that of low fat products (4%), high fat products did not always produce greater amount of volatiles. In summary, irradiation increased lipid and cholesterol oxidation, volatiles production and had detrimental effects on the color of raw pork batters under aerobic condition.     

Cook Yield, Texture and Gel Ultrastructure of Model Beef Batters as Affected by Low Levels of Calcium, Magnesium and Zinc Chloride

Effects of 0.05% CaCl₂, MgCl₂, or ZnCl₂, with or without 0.4% sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP), were investigated in high fat (HF; 30% fat) or low fat (LF; 10% fat) model beef batters. Cook yield (CY), texture, and gel ultrastructure were evaluated. With STPP, CaCl₂ increased CY, and in the absence of STPP, ZnCl₂ decreased CY and cohesiveness (p<0.05). Low-fat, ZnCl₂-treated batters without STPP had the lowest (p<0.05) hardness. Addition of STPP resulted in a homogeneous matrix in HF batters. In MgCl₂-treated HF batters, protein film surrounding fat globules had greater integrity than control, CaCl₂ or ZnCl₂ treatments. In ZnCl₂-treated HF batters (without STPP) a protein sheet was present without evidence of film encased droplets. Low-fat batters with STPP had finer, more porous networks than those without STPP.     

Reduced Fat, High Moisture Beef Frankfurters as Affected by Chopping Temperature

Six treatment combinations were studied to determine the effects of initial temperature (0, 15, 30°C) and endpoint chopping temperatures (0, 15, 30, 45°C) on texture and stability of reduced fat, high moisture beef frankfurters. Textural properties (raw batter, frankfurter) and purge loss were determined over 8 wk storage. As endpoint chopping temperature increased, batter stability and shear force decreased. In most samples, initial temperature did not affect texture or stability. Endpoint chopping temperatures of ± 15°C resulted in most stable batters. Chopping > 15°C lowered product quality.     

Fat reduction in comminuted meat products-effects of beef fat, regular and pre-emulsified canola oil

The effects of fat reduction (25.0%, 17.5%, and 10.0%) and substituting beef fat with canola oil or pre-emulsified canola oil (using soy protein isolate, sodium caseinate or whey protein isolate) on cooking loss, texture and color of comminuted meat products were investigated. Reducing fat from 25 to 10% increased cooking loss and decreased hardness. Canola oil or pre-emulsified treatments showed a positive effect on improving yield and restoring textural parameters. Using sodium caseinate to pre-emulsify the oil resulted in the highest hardness value. Cohesiveness was affected by fat type and level. The color of reduced fat meat batters was darker for all, except the beef fat treatments. Using canola oil or pre-emulsified oil resulted in a significant reduction in redness. The results show that pre-emulsification can offset some of the changes in reduced fat meat products when more water is used to substitute for the fat and that pre-emulsification can also help to produce a more stable meat matrix.     

Hot-boning, Tumbling, Salt and Chopping Temperature Effects on Cooking Yield and Acceptability of Emulsion-type Pork Sausage

Hot-boned or chilled pork with addition of 2% or 3% salt was used to prepare emulsion-type pork sausage. Different tumbling periods and a variety of chopping temperatures were evaluated. Emulsifying capacity (EC), water-holding capacity (WHC), pH, total plate count (TPC) and organoleptic properties were determined. Hot boned pork with 3% added salt had higher EC, pH, WHC, cooking yield and lower TPC than chilled meat samples with 2% added salt. As chopping temperature increased, WHC decreased and TPC increased. However, an intermediate chopping temperature of 12.8°C produced superior yield.     

成熟时间和斩拌时间对低盐牛肉丸品质的影响

以牛后腿肉为原料制作牛肉丸,采用均匀设计探讨宰后成熟时间、斩拌时间和食盐添加量对肉丸质构 特性、出品率和感官品质的影响。结果表明：3 个因素对牛肉丸的质构特性、出品率和感官评分均有显著影响 （P＜0.05）。牛肉丸的弹性随宰后成熟时间的延长先降低后升高;牛肉丸的回复力随着宰后成熟时间的延长或食 盐添加量的增加逐渐变大,随着斩拌时间的增加先上升后下降;牛肉丸的硬度随着宰后成熟时间的延长先下降后上 升,随着斩拌时间的增加逐渐下降,随着食盐添加量的增加逐渐增大。牛肉丸的出品率和感官评分均随宰后成熟时 间的延长而下降,低盐条件下下降尤为明显。因此,对于低盐牛肉丸的生产,宰后越早加工,牛肉丸的品质越好。     

Physicochemical Effects of the Lipid Phase and Protein Level on Meat Emulsion Stability,Texture, and Microstructure

ABSTRACT: The effects of beef fat (25%) substitution with rendered beef fat, canola oil, palm oil, or hydrogenated palm oil at varying meat protein levels (8%, 11%, and 14%) were studied in emulsified beef meat batters. There was no significant difference in fat loss among meat batters made with beef fat, rendered beef fat, or palm oil. Hydrogenated palm oil provided the most stable batters at all protein levels. Increasing meat protein to 14% resulted in high fat loss in batters prepared with canola oil, which did not occur in the other formulations. This indicates that the physicochemical characteristics of fat/oil affect emulsion stability. Cooked batter hardness was higher (P < 0.05) when protein level was raised; highest in hydrogenated palm oil batters when compared at similar protein levels. As protein level was raised springiness values were increased in all the meat treatments. Springiness was higher in the canola oil treatments. Light microscopy revealed fat globule coalescence in canola oil meat batters prepared with 14% protein, as well as the development of fat channels and more protein aggregation; both seem to result in lower emulsion stability. Hydrogenated palm oil batters showed fat particles with sharp edges as opposed to the round ones seen in all other treatments.     

Presalting effects on water retention of pork and beef batters

Presalting effects were studied by measuring cooking loss as a function of chopping time for pork and beef batters. Presalting (ground meat/salt/water = 100/3/20, by weight, 24h) as compared with direct salting in the chopper, substantially reduced the cooking loss of pork batters, but only when the batters were relatively coarsely chopped. With more extensive chopping (exceeding 10–15 min at low chopper speed) no presalting effects were found, indicating that salt diffusion, protein dissolution and myofibril swelling were completed also in control batters salted in the chopper. Presalting of beef had a much weaker, although similar, effect on water retention properties.The practical implications are that presalting may help in reducing cooking loss of coarsely comminuted sausages, particularly pork products. Presalting, however, has no beneficial effect on finely comminuted, bowlchopper-produced sausages.