Dyed Microspheres for Quantification of UV Dose Distributions: Photochemical Reactor Characterization by Lagrangian Actinometry

Lagrangian actinometry represents a new method of photochemical reactor characterization. The method is based on an application of dyed microspheres, which were developed by attachment of (E)-5-[2-(methoxycarbonyl)ethenyl]cytidine (hereafter referred to as S) to polystyrene microspheres. S is a nonfluorescent molecule that when subjected to ultraviolet (UV) irradiation yields a single product, 3-β-D-ribofuranosyl-2,7-dioxopyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidine (hereafter referred to as P), which displays a strong fluorescence signal. Dyed microspheres were subjected to UV irradiation under a collimated beam and using a single-lamp, monochromatic (low pressure Hg), continuous-flow reactor. In parallel with these experiments, a biodosimetry experiment was conducted using Bacillus subtilis spores as the challenge organism. Particle-specific fluorescence intensity measurements were conducted on samples from the collimated-beam experiments and the flow-through reactor experiments by flow cytometry. Estimates of the dose distribution delivered by the flow-through reactor for each operating condition were developed by deconvolution of data resulting from flow cytometry analysis of these samples. In conjunction with these experiments, a numerical model was developed to simulate the behavior of the reactor system. A commercially available computational fluid dynamics package was used to simulate the flow field, while line-source integration was used to simulate the irradiance field. A particle-tracking algorithm was employed to interrogate the flow and irradiance field simulations for purposes of developing particle-specific (Lagrangian) estimates of dose delivery. Dose distribution estimates from the microspheres assays and the numerical simulations were combined with the measured dose–response behavior of B. subtilis spores to yield estimates of spore inactivation in the flow-through experiments. For the range of operating conditions used in these experiments, predictions of spore inactivation based on dose distribution estimates from both methods were in good agreement with each other, and with the measured spore inactivation behavior. Lagrangian actinometry is capable of yielding accurate, detailed measurements of dose delivery by continuous-flow UV systems. This method represents a substantial improvement over existing experiment-based methods of UV reactor characterization (e.g., biodosimetry) in that it yields a measurement of the dose distribution for a given operating condition. This method also represents an improvement over existing methods for validation of numerical simulations. Specifically, because this method yields a measurement of the dose distribution, it is possible to compare these measurements with predicted dose distributions from the numerical simulation. The combined application of biodosimetry, numerical modeling, and Lagrangian actinometry represents an extremely robust approach to reactor characterization and validation.     

Hydraulic Calibration and Fluence Determination of Model Ultraviolet Disinfection System

The objective of this project was to determine the impact hydraulic dispersion has on the calibration of a flow-though model ultraviolet (UV)-disinfection system with chemical actinometry (potassium ferrioxalate) and MS 2 bacteriophage. Fluence was supplied by a medium-pressure ultraviolet lamp to a quartz tube (19 mm diameter) situated in a ventilated galvanized casing. The UV lamp was attached to a vertical position guide, for UV fluence to be varied by positioning the UV lamp at various vertical heights above the quartz tube. Water was pumped through the quartz tube at rates of 100–300 mL/min. An in-line pipe mixer was installed prior to the UV system to ensure adequate mixing with the bulk liquid and chemical actinometer and to mitigate jet formation within the quartz tube. Tracer studies were conducted with and without the in-line mixer using potassium chloride (3 mM). Dispersion coefficients were obtained from the tracer study and incorporated into an axial-dispersion model to determine the rate coefficient of potassium ferrioxalate in the model UV system. A numerical model was used to determine the fluence supplied by the lamp with a reduction in exposure time. After dispersion and kinetics are accounted for within the UV system, the model predicted UV fluence that was in general agreement with UV design curves for inactivation MS 2 bacteriophage. The differences in the design curves and the fluence–response model in the present investigation were found to be related to the experimental errors introduced from using a flowing system and because a medium pressure lamp was used in the present investigation.     

Comparative Inactivation of Bacillus Subtilis Spores and MS-2 Coliphage in a UV Reactor: Implications for Validation

Biodosimetry is the currently accepted method for validation of fluence delivery in ultraviolet (UV) reactors for water disinfection. This method utilizes the inactivation of a surrogate microorganism to predict the reduction equivalent fluence and subsequent inactivation of a target pathogen. Two common surrogates—Bacillus subtilis spores and MS-2 coliphage—were used to examine the relationship between surrogate type and biodosimetry results. A pilot-scale LP UV reactor was investigated at two flow conditions (7.5 and 15?gpm) and four different UV 253.7?nm water transmittance (UVT, 1?cm) values between 82 and 91%. The calculated reduction equivalent fluence differed from a maximum of 30% at 7.5?gal./min and 15% at 15?gal./min between the surrogates tested, depending on the UVT. These differences were attributed to the sensitivity of organisms used, hydraulic inefficiences, and UV fluence distribution in the reactor, thus the choice of validation microbe may impact the determination of reduction equivalent fluence in UV reactors.     

Impact of Particle Aggregated Microbes on UV Disinfection. II: Proper Absorbance Measurement for UV Fluence

Ultraviolet (UV) absorbance measurements are subject to significant error using a standard spectrophotometer when particles or aggregates that scatter light are present. True UV absorbance for highly turbid waters should be measured using integrating sphere (IS) spectrophotometry that allows the collection of reflected and transmitted radiation simultaneously. This is especially important when the effects of scattering impact UV disinfection—such as with the presence of aggregates. The impact of light scattering of particle-aggregated microbes on UV disinfection was evaluated by comparing standard spectrophotometer and integrating sphere absorbance measurements for UV fluence determination. Spore–clay aggregates in simulated drinking waters and spore aggregates with natural particles from raw waters were induced by flocculation with alum. Coagulated systems significantly decreased the UV inactivation effectiveness compared to the noncoagulated system with the effects more pronounced for raw natural water. Absorbance measurement of suspensions and aggregates using standard spectrophotometry in the calculations of fluence resulted in overdosing whereas the use of IS spectroscopy did not. The results demonstrated that aggregation protected spores from UV disinfection, and that use of proper absorbance measurement techniques, accounting for particle scattering, is essential for correct interpretation of the results.     

Physiological effects of ultraviolet light on Dictyostelium discoideum spore germination

The spore germination in Dictyostelium discoideum consists of four stages: activation, postactivation lag, swelling and emergence. Ultraviolet irradiation (total fluence of 250 J/m(2)) of spores at any time prior to late spore swelling allows full swelling, but inhibits the emergence of myxamoebae. In the case of freshly activated spores, a UV exposure time of 30 s (total fluence of 50 J/m(2)) is sufficient to reduce emergence to about 6% when measured after 24 h of incubation. This same fluence results in about 10% viability as measured by plaque forming ability. Experiments utilizing "fractionated exposures' result in the same percentage inhibition of emergence as that found for "single exposures' provided the total fluence is equivalent. The higher fluences (250 J/m(2)) which completely prevent emergence, do not affect the endogenous oxygen uptake of spores during swelling. Ultraviolet light irradiated spores respond to the same activation and deactivation treatments as control unirradiated spores. Ultraviolet irradiation after late spore swelling allows emergence to occur in only a small fraction of the population. This fraction of cells which can emerge after UV treatment is said to have passed a "competence point', which is believed to be the time when all the events necessary for emergence have been completed. Though the sites of UV inactivation in spores can only be postulated at present, it is apparent that the initial stages of germination (activation, postactivation lag and spore swelling) occur independently of the UV sensitive sites. The final stage of germination (emergence), however, is dependent on UV sensitive functions.     

Photoageing of hair fiber and photoprotection

Examination by transmission electron microscopy of hair exposed to sunlight has revealed important damage. Findings indicate an alteration of various cell components. Damage occurs in the cuticle and leads to its loss. Separation of macrofibrils and destruction of melanin pigments result in cortex damage. Some of the chemical and physical changes which occur in hair exposed to sunlight were studied: formation of carbonyl groups, cystine destruction, modification of the proteins obtained by reduction of the disulfide bonds, losses in mechanical strength and discoloration are discussed. Effects of UV and visible radiations were studied. All of them cause modification in hair properties. Experiments with artificial light sources were carried out to reproduce these alterations. The role of water during exposure was studied. In particular, discoloration of brown hair is largely affected by it. We showed that Xenon lamps were useful to follow the photooxidation of hair and simulate natural alterations. The properties of some protective materials were examined.     

Effect of Turbulence on Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation

It is shown that in ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI) systems for air disinfection, where turbulence completely mixes the flow in the directions perpendicular to the net flow direction, turbulence can also act to reduce the effectiveness of the system. This occurs when the longitudinal diffusion coefficient resulting from the turbulence is large enough to reduce the effective transit time of the air through the ultraviolet irradiation zone. At the same time, depending on the radiation fluence, UV kill rate parameter, diffusion coefficient, and flow rate, the longitudinal turbulent diffusion can also increase the effectiveness of the UVGI system. The appropriate combination of parameters for ascertaining whether turbulence reduces or increases UVGI effectiveness is derived.     

Effect of intensive swimming training on lung volumes, airway resistance and on the maximal expiratory flow-volume relationship in prepubertal girls

Data from a multicenter case-control study on breast cancer conducted in Italy were used to analyze the relationship between various types of fibers and breast cancer risk. Cases were 2,569 women with histologically confirmed, incident breast cancer; controls were 2,588 women admitted to the same network of hospitals for acute, nonneoplastic, non-hormone-related diseases. Cases and controls were interviewed between 1991 and 1994 using a validated food frequency questionnaire. The data were modeled through multiple logistic regression, controlling for demographic and reproductive breast cancer risk factors. The continuous odds ratios for the difference between the upper cut point of the fourth and the first quintile of intake were 0.90 [95% confidence interval = 0.82-0.98, p (for trend) < 0.05] for cellulose and 0.94 (95% confidence interval = 0.86-1.02) for soluble fibers. The protection tended to be stronger in premenopausal women. No material association was found for noncellulose polysaccharides and lignin. This study, based on a large data set from various Italian regions, suggests that fiber intake may confer some protection against breast cancer, particularly for cellulose and also for soluble fibers, i.e., those of vegetable origin. This possible protection has been related to an influence of fibers on levels and availability of estrogens and other steroid hormones in breast carcinogenesis.     

Three-dimensional CT measurement of adult acetabular dysplasia: technique, preliminary results in normal subjects, and potential applications

OBJECTIVE: To assess a three-dimensional computed tomography (3DCT) technique for measurement of acetabular coverage in adults. DESIGN: We used 3DCT to define the geometric centre of the femoral head and to measure centre-edge angles (CEAs) at 10 degrees rotational increments around the acetabular rim. The means, ranges, standard deviations and 95% confidence intervals for the CEAs at the various rotational increments were determined. Inter- and intra-observer variability was measured. The normal values are compared with two example cases of acetabular dysplasia. PATIENTS: The normal hips of 15 subjects aged 1949 years (mean 34.2 years) were measured. RESULTS: The 3DCT measurements are reproducible (mean difference interobserver, 1.7 degrees - 7.9 degrees; mean difference intra-observer, 0.6 degrees-6.9 degrees). Mean normal CEA at the lateral rim was 33 degrees with a 95% confidence interval of 23 degrees - 43 degrees. Mean normal CEAs at 10 rotational increments from anterior to posterior rim were determined, and graphed as a 'normal curve'. CONCLUSION: This new 3DCT method of assessing acetabular dysplasia is simple, reproducible, and applicable to diagnosis, quantification and surgical planning for adult acetabular dysplasia patients.     

New nortriterpenoid isolated from anti-rheumatoid arthritic plant, Tripterygium wilfordii, modulates tumor growth and neovascularization

Noninvasive measurement of blood flow velocity through the cardiac valves has important clinical applications. A wide variety of MR methods are available for flow measurement. The aim of this study was to investigate the ability of cine MR Fourier velocimetry to measure flow through healthy cardiac valves and to compare MR and Doppler peak velocity measurements. Ten healthy volunteers (age mean +/- SD, 24 +/- 4 years) without history of valvular disease were studied. Four of the subjects were females. In each subject, aortic, pulmonary, mitral, and tricuspid valves were evaluated with MR and Doppler imaging. A whole-body mobile MR machine was used, operating at .5-T with actively shielded magnetic field gradient coils on all three axes capable of 20 mT/m at a slew rate of 60 mT/ m/msec. The heart rate during MR and Doppler studies was not significantly different. The mean difference between the two studies was 2 beats/min, with a 95% confidence interval of -22 beats/min, +25 beats/ min. Peak systolic flow velocity in the aortic and pulmonary valves and peak diastolic flow velocity in the mitral and tricuspid valves measured with MRI and Doppler echocardiography correlated well. The mean difference between the two measurements (MR-Doppler) was 63 mm/sec, with a 95% confidence interval of -180 mm/sec, +310 mm/sec. The agreement between two observers interpreting the same MR velocity maps was close. The mean difference between their two measurements was 23 mm/sec, with a 95% confidence interval of -20 mm/sec, +60 mm/sec. There was no significant difference between MR and Doppler imaging or between the two MR observers. MR Fourier velocimetry has the necessary ease, reliability, and speed to measure blood flow through the cardiac valves, although measurement of late diastolic flow in the atrioventricular valves is limited. Measurement of peak blood velocity through the cardiac valves by this method showed satisfactory agreement with Doppler, but its clinical application for assessing diseased cardiac valves must be established.     

Photochemical Remediation of Tetrachloroethylene: Reactor Design, Construction, and Preliminary Results

A custom designed pilot-scale photochemical remediation reactor is constructed for remediation of vapor-phase volatile organic halocarbons (VOHs), particularly chlorinated hydrocarbons such as PCE (tetrachloroethylene). Ultraviolet (UV) light, when emitted at an effective absorption frequency, cleaves a VOH’s carbon-chloride bond, transforming harmful contaminants to harmless products. The stainless steel reactor is of tubular-shape with an inner diameter of 32 cm and a length of 105 cm. The net volume of the reactor is approximately 73.7 L. Three stainless steel baffles are welded inside the reactor to create a well-mixed vapor phase and uniform UV contact time. Special low-pressure mercury amalgam UV lamps (Heraeus, Inc., Duluth, Ga.) are used as the photoenergy source. Two independent vapor-phase PCE destruction experiments are conducted using different influent contaminant concentrations. Both experiments show a PCE destruction efficiency of over 99%.     

Inactivation of Adenovirus Types 2, 5, and 41 in Drinking Water by UV Light, Free Chlorine, and Monochloramine

A bench-scale study was conducted to determine the inactivation of adenovirus (Ad) types 2, 5, and 41 by ultraviolet (UV) light, chlorine, and monochloramine. The motivation for this study was to determine whether UV disinfection followed by chlorine or monochloramine for a very short contact time (e.g., a minute) could satisfy regulatory requirements for four-log virus inactivation. In order to overcome the difficulty Ad 41 presents for enumeration of the virus in cell culture, a technique was used that combined immunofluorescent staining of viral antigen with traditional scoring of cytopathic effect. A UV dose of 40?mJ/cm2 (millijoules per square centimeter) (applied using a collimated beam apparatus) achieved approximately one-log inactivation of adenovirus types 2, 5 and 41, confirming previous research. Ad 41 was found to be more UV resistant to UV light than Ad 2 or Ad 5 at UV doses >70?mJ/cm2 to a statistically significant degree (95% confidence); however, at lower UV doses there were no statistically significant differences. Experiments with Ad 5 and Ad 41 at 5°C and pH 8.5 showed that chlorine was very effective against Ad 5 and Ad 41, with a product of disinfectant concentration and contact time (CT) of 0.22?mg min/L providing four-log inactivation. Monochloramine was less effective against these adenoviruses, with a CT of 350?mg min/L required to achieve 2.5-log inactivation of Ad 5 and 41 at 5°C and pH 8.5.     

铋磷钼蓝光度法测定铁矿石中磷含量的不确定度评定

采用铋磷钼蓝光度法对铁矿石中磷进行测定,应用统计学理论对其分析结果不确定度的产生原因进行分析,建立测量过程分量的数学模型,分析测量过程不确定度来源及各不确定度分量对总不确定度的影响,确定测定结果的置信区间。给出铁矿石中磷的含量及其置信区间为0.0283%±0.0032%。     

Manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) genetic polymorphisms, dietary antioxidants, and risk of breast cancer

Oxidative stress, resulting from the imbalance between prooxidant and antioxidant states, damages DNA, proteins, cell membranes, and mitochondria and seems to play a role in human breast carcinogenesis. Dietary sources of antioxidants (chemical) and endogenous antioxidants (enzymatic), including the polymorphic manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD), can act to reduce the load of oxidative stress. We hypothesized that the valine-to-alanine substitution that seems to alter transport of the enzyme into the mitochondrion, changing its efficacy in fighting oxidative stress, was associated with breast cancer risk and that a diet rich in sources of antioxidants could ameliorate the effects on risk. Data were collected in a case-control study of diet and breast cancer in western New York from 1986 to 1991. Caucasian women with incident, primary, histologically confirmed breast cancer were frequency-matched on age and county of residence to community controls. Blood specimens were collected and processed from a subset of participants in the study (266 cases and 295 controls). Using a RFLP that distinguishes a valine (V) to alanine (A) change in the -9 position in the signal sequence of the protein for MnSOD, we characterized MnSOD genotypes in relation to breast cancer risk. We also evaluated the effect of the polymorphism on risk among low and high consumers of fruits and vegetables. Premenopausal women who were homozygous for the A allele had a 4-fold increase in breast cancer risk in comparison to those with 1 or 2 V alleles (odds ratio, 4.3; 95% confidence interval, 1.7-10.8). Risk was most pronounced among women below the median consumption of fruits and vegetables and of dietary ascorbic acid and alpha-tocopherol, with little increased risk for those with diets rich in these foods. Relationships were weaker among postmenopausal women, although the MnSOD AA genotype was associated with an almost 2-fold increase in risk (odds ratio, 1.8; confidence interval, 0.9-3.6). No appreciable modification of risk by diet was detected for these older women. These data support the hypothesis that MnSOD and oxidative stress play a significant role in breast cancer risk, particularly in premenopausal women. The finding that risk was greatest among women who consumed lower amounts of dietary antioxidants and was minimal among high consumers indicates that a diet rich in sources of antioxidants may minimize the deleterious effects of the MnSOD polymorphism, thereby supporting public health recommendations for the consumption of diets rich in fruits and vegetables as a preventive measure against cancer.     

Sequential Inactivation of Bacillus Subtilis Spores with Ultraviolet Radiation and Iodine

Bacillus subtilis spores were used as an indicator organism to characterize the effects of UV radiation and iodine, alone and in combination, as disinfectants for water. Spore exposures to UV radiation were conducted in shallow, well-mixed batch reactors under collimated beams. Three (essentially) monochromatic collimated UV sources were used in these experiments, with characteristic emission wavelengths of 222, 254, and 282?nm. Iodine exposures were conducted in well-mixed batch reactors. Synergism was demonstrated when UV (at certain doses) and iodine were used as sequential disinfectants; synergism was attributed to UV-induced damage that enhanced the susceptibility of spores to iodine.     

Ex vivo light dosimetry and Monte Carlo simulations for endobronchial photodynamic therapy

The light distribution during photodynamic therapy of the bronchial tree has been estimated by measuring the fluence rate in ex vivo experiments on dissected pig bronchi. The trachea was illuminated (630 nm) with a cylindrical diffuser and the fluence rate was measured with a fibre optic isotropic probe. The experiment with the diffuser on the central axis was also simulated with Monte Carlo techniques using the optical properties that were determined with a double-integrating-sphere set-up. The results from ex vivo experiments and the Monte Carlo simulations were found to agree within the error of measurement (15%), indicating that the Monte Carlo technique can be used to estimate the light distribution for varying geometries and optical properties. The results showed that the light fluence rate in the mucosa of the tracheal tract may increase by a factor of six compared to the fluence rate in air (in the absence of tissue). This is due to the scattering properties of the tissue and the multiple reflections within the cavity. Further ex vivo experiments showed that the positioning of the diffuser is critical for the fluence rate in the lesion to be treated. When the position of the diffuser was changed from the central axis to near the lesion, the fluence rate in the mucosa increased significantly by several orders of magnitude as compared to the initial (central) illumination. The inter- and intraspecimen variations in this increase were large (+/- 35%) because of variations in optical and geometrical properties and light source positioning, respectively. These variations might cause under- or overdosage resulting in either insufficient tumour necrosis or excessive normal tissue damage.     

紫外可见分光光度计的测量结果不确定度分析

按《GB/T75481 2000检测和校准实验室能力的通用要求》的规定:各校准实验室或进行自校准的检测实验室,对所有的校准和各种校准类型都应具有和评定测量不确定度的陈述,故作者所在实验室也按其规定要求对新购的测试仪器进行了检测调试。该文以高碘酸钾氧化分光光度法测定钢铁及其合金中的锰量为例,介绍了UV 9100型紫外可见分光光度计测定钢铁中锰的测量不确定度,以及采用相对法求线性回归方程并用于检查前述测量不确定度的方法。结果显示UV 9100紫外分光光度计测量锰量的扩展不确定度为:u95=0.0379。     

Oxidation of Methyl Tert-Butyl Ether in Aqueous Solution by an Ozone/UV Process

In this paper, the oxidation of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) in aqueous solution by an ozone/ultraviolet (UV) process was described. The oxidation process was investigated experimentally in a semibatch reactor under various operational conditions, i.e., ozone gas dosage, UV light intensity, and water quality in terms of varying bicarbonate concentration. The ozone/UV process was very successful in oxidizing MTBE. The rate of removal of MTBE increased when the incident UV light intensity increased for the same concentration of influent ozone gas. Similarly, an increase in influent ozone gas concentration resulted in faster removal of MTBE for the same incident UV light intensity. However, bicarbonate in the range of 2–8?mM showed no significant effect on MTBE removal for MTBE concentration ( ～ 1.0?mM) used in this study. Moreover, it was observed that the reaction intermediates could react well in the ozone/UV process, and complete mineralization could be achieved by the ozone/UV process, if desired.     

Determination of iodine in milk and oyster tissue samples using combustion and peroxydisulfate oxidation

Two methods are described for the preparation of samples for total iodine measurement in biological matrices. In the first method, the samples were combusted in a stream of oxygen to release iodine that, subsequently, was trapped in a solution as iodide. The second method is a new approach in which the samples were oxidized in a basic solution of peroxydisulfate. In this case, the iodine was retained in solution as iodate. Total iodine was measured by gas chromatographic analysis of the 2-iodopentan-3-one derivative. The methods were tested using Standard Reference Materials (SRMs) 1549 Non-Fat Milk Powder, and 1566a and 1566 Oyster Tissue. Also, KI and KIO3 were used for testing the procedures. The results obtained for the SRMs, given as average +/- standard deviation in micrograms g-1, were: 3.39 +/- 0.14 and 3.40 +/- 0.23 for SRM 1549; 4.60 +/- 0.42 and 4.51 +/- 0.45 for SRM 1566a; and 2.84 +/- 0.16 and 2.76 +/- 0.06 for SRM 1566; values corresponding to combustion and wet oxidation, respectively. Overall, the absolute recoveries varied between 91 and 103%. These methods can also be used in the preparation of targets for the measurement of 129I using accelerator mass spectrometry.     

Standardized Collimated Beam Testing Protocol for Water/Wastewater Ultraviolet Disinfection

Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation has emerged as a viable alternative for water/wastewater disinfection. Laboratory dose-response data from collimated-beam tests are commonly used as a basis for determining the necessary delivered UV dose for full-scale UV systems as measured by UV intensity and exposure time. While researchers often think that germicidal dose can be estimated confidently in a collimated beam system, the reported dose-response relationships vary considerably. Numerous factors may affect the test results to some extent. They include apparatus setup, column dimensions, UV lamp type and output, intensity measurement, shutter type and operation, petri dish specifications, sample volume and depth of the liquid, mixing condition, laboratory settings, microbial organism preparation and testing, and water quality. The methodology used to calculate the UV dose for collimated beam tests is also a critical factor. To ensure reproducibility or to have a meaningful comparison of results from different collimated beam tests, a standardized protocol for collimated beam testing and its dose calculation is necessary. The standardized collimated beam test can then serve as a tool to “calibrate” the dose calculation models for field-scale UV reactors and, consequently, to meaningfully compare the dose values derived from these models. A comprehensive standardized collimated beam testing protocol is warranted to advance applications of UV disinfection for water/wastewater. However, development of such a protocol is a significant research effort that will require input from researchers of various technical and disciplinary backgrounds. In addition, some technical issues still need to be clarified by further research. This paper presents important issues associated with collimated beam testing in the context of developing a standard protocol as well as future research needs. The main objective is to serve as a starting point for development of a standardized collimated beam testing protocol that is universally acceptable by researchers, industries, and regulatory agencies.