Memory independence and memory interference in cognitive development.

Recent experiments have established the surprising fact that age improvements in reasoning are often dissociated from improvements in memory for determinative informational inputs. Fuzzy-trace theory explains this memory-independence effect on the grounds that reasoning operations do not directly access verbatim traces of critical background information but, rather, process gist that was retrieved and edited in parallel with the encoding of such information. This explanation also envisions 2 ways in which children's memory and reasoning might be mutually interfering: (1) memory-to-reasoning interference, a tendency to process verbatim traces of background inputs on both memory probes and reasoning problems that simultaneously improves memory performance and impairs reasoning, and (2) reasoning-to-memory interference, a tendency for reasoning activities that produce problem solutions to erase or reduce the distinctiveness of verbatim traces of background inputs. Both forms of interference were detected in studies of children's story inferences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Empathy and ego development": Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by A. F. Carlozzi et al (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1983[Jan], Vol 30[1], 113-116). A sentence was omitted on page 115. The missing sentence is provided. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1983-10448-001.) Examined the relationship between empathy and ego development to determine whether, as J. Loevinger (1976) suggested, empathy is characteristic of higher levels of ego development. 51 undergraduates (dormitory advisors) completed the Affective Sensitivity Scale (a measure of empathy) and the Loevinger Sentence Completion Test (a measure of ego development). Analysis of test scores indicated that Ss at higher levels of ego development (I-3/4 and above) had significantly higher empathy scores than did those at lower ego levels. Findings have implications for the selection and training of individuals to serve in counseling or quasi-counseling roles. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Parsimonious prediction of Wechsler Memory Scale—Revised memory indices": Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by J. L. Woodard and B. N. Axelrod ( Psychological Assessment, 1995, Vol 7[4], 445–449). On page 448, lines 16–28, there is an error in the computational example demonstrating the calculation of the weighted sum of raw scores for General Memory. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1996-10112-001.) The Wechsler Memory Scale—Revised (WMS—R; D. Wechsler, 1987) represents a significant improvement over the original WMS (D. Wechsler, 1945). However, its usefulness is diminished by the increased administration time, and the incremental validity of the new subtests is questionable. Using a sample of 308 patients referred for neuropsychological evaluation, two regression equations were developed to predict weighted raw score sums for General Memory (GM) and Delayed Recall (DR), using the WMS—R analogs of 5 subtests from the original WMS. Predicted scores were within +6 points of actual performance for 92% of the sample for GM and for 96% of the sample for DR. Application of these equations to the WMS—R standardization sample subtests means produced estimated GM indices ranging from 96 to 103 and estimated DR indices ranging from 98 to 101 across age groups.… (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"A conception of adult development": Reply.

D. J. Levinson's (see record 1986-19674-001) conceptualization of adult development presents a rich avenue for exploring personal growth and the effects of life-cycle changes both in and out of therapy. Research in this area can elucidate such issues as sociocultural changes in the timing of major life-cycle events (e.g., childbearing, retirement) and life-crisis stressors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory integration and memory interference.

S. D. Moesser (see PA, Vol 56:3437; 1977) found that Ss presented with a nonsequential order of interrelating sentences did not show any evidence of having integrated these sentences into composite units. This type of presentation procedure also produces an interference effect that lessens the probability of retrieving information from the presented sentences. However, J. Bransford and J. Franks (see record 1972-24191-001) reported that Ss presented with a nonsequential order of interrelating sentences automatically integrate the partial ideas into holistic units. Bransford and Franks based their conclusions on the facts that (1) Ss were unable to identify the exact exemplars that were presented, and (2) Ss showed a bias in choosing more complex sentences as having been part of the acquisition corpus. Two experiments are reported here, which were conducted with 124 Newfoundland college students who participated in 1 of 2 encoding conditions while performing forced-choice or confidence recognition tasks. Results show that both the failure to identify presented exemplars and the tendency to choose more complex sentences in the test corpus were products of the retrieval interference effect. Findings fail to support the proposal that Ss will automatically integrate related ideas into composite units. (French abstract) (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Memory, abuse, and science: Questioning claims about the false memory syndrome epidemic": Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by Kenneth S. Pope (American Psychologist, 1996, 51[9], 957–974). On page 964 there is an incorrect attribution of data. A more appropriate summary is offered. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared as record 1996-05971-008.) Careful assessment of purported scientific discoveries and the resulting interpretations is a responsibility of every scientist. The area of memory, particularly memory for abuse, has recently seen new, highly publicized claims. These include the proposal of a new diagnostic category, the false memory syndrome; claims about the ease with which extensive autobiographical memories can be implanted; and estimates of the extent therapists use risky practices likely to cause false memory syndrome. This article suggests questions to evaluate these claims and the methods used to promote them. Implications for clinical standards and malpractice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Aging and forgetting in prospective and retrospective memory tasks": Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by E. A. Maylor (Psychology and Aging, 1993[Sep], Vol 8[3], 420–428). There is an error in the picture recognition data. This was one of the tasks administered in an earlier group testing session (see page 421). The number of false positives for an older S was incorrectly entered onto the data sheet as 31 instead of only 13. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1994-01191-001.) Ss (aged 52–83 yrs) named 30 famous people 4 times over the course of an hour and responded to 2 targets (a beard and a pipe) by marking the trial number on the response sheet. Initial performance in the prospective memory task was related only to a measure of incidental learning. Subsequent forgetting (i.e., success followed by failure) occurred more often for older Ss than for younger Ss, but there was no difference between the age groups in recovery (i.e., failure followed by success). Forgetting was predicted by age, even after a composite measure of general ability was included in the regression. Recovery was related to general ability alone. Results both replicate and extend those from a reanalysis of a previous study (E. A. Maylor, 1990). They provide a striking contrast with the effect of age on retrospective memory.… (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"The Memory Functioning Questionnaire for assessment of memory complaints in adulthood and old age": Correction to Gilewski et al.

Reports an error in "The Memory Functioning Questionnaire for assessment of memory complaints in adulthood and old age" by Michael J. Gilewski, Elizabeth M. Zelinski and K. Warner Schaie (Psychology and Aging, 1990[Dec], Vol 5[4], 482-490). In the aforementioned article, the author note at the beginning of the article should have contained the following statement: "The Memory Functioning Questionnaire (MFQ) items that appear in the appendix at the end of this article were published previously in 'Memory Functioning Questionnaire (MFQ)' by Michael J. Gilewski and Elizabeth M. Zelinski (Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 1988, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp. 665-670). The current article reflects the construction validation, scoring, and interpretation of the MFQ more accurately than does the article that appeared in Psychopharmacology Bulletin." (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1991-08788-001.) The results of psychometric analyses of the Metamemory Questionnaire (MQ) of E. M. Zelinski et al (1980), developed to evaluate perception of everyday memory functioning, are presented for a sample of 343 men and 435 women (aged 16-89 yrs). Exploratory factor analysis yielded 4 correlated factors (General Frequency of Forgetting, Retrospective Functioning, and Mnemonics Usage) that accounted for 36.7% of the variance in responses to the MQ. Factor structure was invariant across age groups (16-54 vs 55-89 yrs), 2 independent samples, and over 3 yrs. Because some of the original MQ scales did not load on the factors, only 64 of the original 92 items were retained for inclusion in the Memory Functioning Questionnaire (MFQ). Internal consistency of MFQ scores is high. The MFQ is therefore reliable for evaluating memory self-appraisals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Anxiety disorders in adults": Correction.

Reports an error in "Review of Anxiety disorders in adults" by John Hunsley (Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 2002[Aug], Vol 43[3], 212-214). In this review, it was incorrectly reported that the series in which this title appears, Guidebooks in Clinical Psychology, is published by Guilford. In fact, the publisher is Oxford University Press. We apologize to the authors and publishers concerned for this error. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2007-16946-001.) Reviews the book, Anxiety disorders in adults by Peter D. McLean and Sheila R. Woody (see record 2001-00540-000). This recent volume by McLean and Woody, part of Guilford's new series of guidebooks in clinical psychology, is the best example of this new generation of psychotherapy books. The authors have a wealth of experience in conducting clinical research and in supervising clinicians and graduate students in providing treatments in clinical trials. This book is a gem. The scientist-practitioner model is the cornerstone of clinical psychology training in Canada, and it was a real pleasure to read a work that so fully embodies the spirit of the scientist-practitioner model. McLean and Woody's book belongs on the shelf of everyone who trains students to work with anxiety-disordered clients or who provides direct services to this astonishingly underserved segment of the population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Improving memory performance in the aged through mnemonic training: A meta-analytic study": Correction.

Reports editorial errors in the original article by P. Verhaeghen et al (Psychology and Aging, 1992[Jun], Vol 7[2], 242–251). The S groups reported in the unpublished dissertation by T. M. Flynn (1987) and in the article by Flynn and M. Storandt (see record 1990-28066-001) mentioned in the 3rd part of Table 1 on page 244 are in fact the same. The changes in the results are minimal and have no consequences whatsoever for the conclusions drawn from the meta-analysis. Correct versions of Tables 2, 3, 4, and 5 can be obtained from the 1st author. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in PA, Vol 79:34705.) The effectiveness of memory training for the elderly was examined through a meta-analysis of pre- to posttest gains on episodic memory tasks in healthy Ss (aged 60+ yrs). Pre- to posttest gains were found to be significantly larger in training groups (0.73 SD, k?=?49) than in both control (0.38 SD, k?=?10) and placebo (0.37 SD, k?=?8) groups. Treatment gains in training groups were negatively affected by age of participants and duration of training sessions and positively affected by group treatment, pretraining, and memory-related interventions. No differences in treatment gain were obtained as a function of type of mnemonic taught nor the kind of pretraining used. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Effects of aerobic exercise on cognitive and psychosocial functioning in patients with mild hypertension": Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by T. W. Pierce et al (Health Psychology, 1993[Jul], Vol 12[4], 286–291). Table 4, which was inadvertently excluded, is provided. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1993-46609-001.) The effects of 16 wks of physical exercise training on the psychological functioning of 90 patients with mild hypertension were examined. At baseline and after 16 wks of training, patients completed a psychometric test battery that included objective measures of neuropsychological performance and standardized self-report measures of psychosocial functioning. Patients were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups: aerobic exercise, strength training and flexibility exercise, or a waiting list control group. After training, there were no group differences on any of the psychological measures, even though patients who engaged in exercise perceived themselves as functioning better in a number of psychological domains. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Voluntary settlement and the spirit of independence: Evidence from Japan's "northern frontier."

The authors hypothesized that economically motivated voluntary settlement in the frontier fosters independent agency. While illuminating the historical origin of American individualism, this hypothesis can be most powerfully tested in a region that is embedded in a broader culture of interdependence and yet has undergone a recent history of such settlement. The authors therefore examined residents of Japan's northern island (Hokkaido). Hokkaido was extensively settled by ethnic Japanese beginning in the 1870s and for several decades thereafter. Many of the current residents of Hokkaido are the descendents of the original settlers from this period. As predicted, Japanese socialized and/or immersed in Hokkaido were nearly as likely as European Americans in North America to associate happiness with personal achievement (Study 1), to show a personal dissonance effect wherein self-justification is motivated by a threat to personal self-images (Study 2), and to commit a dispositional bias in causal attribution (Study 3). In contrast, these marker effects of independent agency were largely absent for non-Hokkaido residents in Japan. Implications for theories of cultural change and persistence are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Perceptions of past research": Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by D. Bruce and H. P. Bahrick (American Psychologist, 1992, Vol 47[2], 319–328). On page 326, Table 4 contained a typographical error. The corrected table is presented. The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1992-25028-001). Publication records were determined for 17 research topics in learning, memory, and perception. Topics varied in the initial and median years of publications, longevity, and size and shape of the distribution of publications. A total of 237 research scholars indicated their knowledge, perceptions, and evaluations of the issues. Familiarity with a problem depended on its age and when one was trained: Earlier PhDs were more familiar with older issues, and later PhDs with more recent issues. Topics perceived as the demonstration of a phenomenon were judged as less important, and those perceived as the investigation of a cognitive process as more important. Problems viewed as resolved were accorded more significance, and those abandoned because of paradigm shifts or intractability as less significance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Modeling class inclusion strategies": Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by Hoben Thomas (Developmental Psychology, 1995[Mar], Vol 31[2], 170–279). On page 174, there were errors in Table 3; a corrected version of the table is provided. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in PA, Vol 82:24623.) B. Hodkin (see record 1988-01105-001) proposed a model for estimating the proportions of 3 possible solution strategies used by children in their responses to class inclusion items: guessing, subclass comparison, and inclusion logic. The model considers guessing, which if not modeled would result in estimates of young children's class inclusion understanding that would be seriously inflated as she demonstrated. However, the model assumes children are consistent in their task strategy. Hodkin's data suggest this assumption is incorrect; moreover, changes in task strategies that occur with development are not revealed by her model. A more general model, of which Hodkin's model is a special case, reveals that the youngest children's responses display mixed response strategies. The results illustrate the need to consider richer models that allow for assessing model parameter estimates and their variances are provided for both models. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Memory and the hippocampus: A synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans": Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by L. R. Squire (Psychological Review, 1992[Apr], Vol 99[2], 195–231). The caption for Figure 7 was incorrect. The corrected caption is given. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1992-26428-001.) Considers the role of the hippocampus in memory function. A central thesis involving work with rats, monkeys, and humans (which has sometimes seemed to proceed independently in 3 separate literatures) is now largely in agreement about the function of the hippocampus and related structures. A biological perspective is presented that proposes multiple memory systems with different functions and distinct anatomical organizations. The hippocampus (together with anatomically related structures) is essential for a specific kind of memory, here termed declarative memory (similar terms include explicit and relational). Declarative memory is contrasted with a heterogeneous collection of nondeclarative (implicit) memory abilities that do not require the hippocampus (skills and habits, simple conditioning, and the phenomenon of priming). The hippocampus is needed temporarily to bind together distributed sites in the neocortex that together represent a whole memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Does motor programming necessitate response execution?": Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by A. Osman et al (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1990, Vol 16[1], 183–298). In Table 3 on page 192, 2 responses for high-complexity sequences should read "1 Ri?+?3 Li or 1 Li?+?3 Ri.' (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1990-13808-001.) The complexity of a movement is known to affect the time it takes to initiate the movement. This effect is thought to reflect changes in the duration of processes that operate on a motor program. This question addressed here is whether programming a movement compels the start of its overt execution. If it does, then the programming processes may be said to occur after the "point of no return.' We report results from an empirical procedure and a theoretical analysis designed to study processes before and after this point separately. According to our results, changes in the complexity of a movement affect only the prior set of processes. From this we argue that motor programming does not necessitate response execution and that the point of no return occurs very late in the information-processing system. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Speed of scanning in primary memory in persons with dementia of the Alzheimer type": Correction.

Reports editorial errors in the original article by T. L. Boaz and D. R. Denney (Psychology and Aging, 1993[Jun], Vol 8[2], 294–300). A short segment of text was misplaced in the Results section; the corrected text is included. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1993-42036-001.) The nature of the search of primary memory by persons with a presumptive diagnosis of mild Alzheimer's disease (dementia of the Alzheimer type [DAT]) was compared with that of normal elderly and young persons using the S. Sternberg (1966) paradigm. DAT Ss evidenced a substantial deficit in the speed of scanning in primary memory and a deficit in at least one other stage of processing. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that the decline in memory performance evidenced by persons with DAT may be attributable to an increase in the time requirements of mnemonic processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)