Sample description, reporting, an analysis of sex in psychological research: A look at APA and APA division journals in 1990.

Extends a study by L. Gannon et al (see record 1992-23274-001) by examining the sex of Ss in American Psychological Association (APA) journals publishing original human studies research and by sampling all APA division journals publishing such research. Two issues of each APA and APA division journal published in 1990 were examined, yielding a sample of 504 articles from 26 journals. 79 cases (9.86%) clearly indicated using Ss of only 1 sex, 440 cases (54.93%) used both male and female Ss and reported sex fully, and 44 cases (5.49%) indicated using Ss of each sex without reporting exact numbers. The evidence suggests that there remains a significant tendency to consider male Ss as "normative," and results obtained from them generally applicable, whereas female Ss are somehow "different," and results obtained from them are specific to female Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Idiosyncratic weighting of trait information in impression formation.

Analyzes the role of unequal weighting (UW) in the averaging model of information integration. A distinction is made between UW at the normative level (which has been referred to as "differential weighting") and UW at the level of the individual S (which is here called "idiosyncratic weighting"—IW). The prevalence of IW in the trait-judgment impression formation task was examined in 2 studies. Whereas most past research on the question of UW in this task involved averaging responses across both Ss and stimulus replications, the present studies were analyzed at the level of an individual S's repeated responses to separate stimulus replications. Clear evidence of IW was obtained from half of the 120 undergraduate Ss; only 20% of Ss indicated no tendency toward UW. There was no evidence that IW was restricted to just a subset of stimuli, since all of the 20 stimulus replications showed IW effects. In more than 20% of the instances of UW, the more positive trait was accorded a higher weight. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Quantitative motivational differences between volunteers and nonvolunteers for a psychological experiment.

How do volunteers compare with paid Ss in research? What part does anxiety play in volunteering? "Two classes each of 89 students were given the short form of the Taylor MAS (the SMAS), the Christie and Budnitzky Short Forced-Choice Anxiety Scale (the SFCAS), and a 20-item scale purporting to assess Murray's n Harmavoidance." 2 weeks later the Ss were invited to participate as paid Ss in an "experiment." Need for cash and fear of the electric shock were assessed. Volunteers needed cash more, feared the shock and harm less. "As in other reported studies of this kind, the SMAS did not at all discriminate volunteer from other Ss; nor in fact did the SFCAS." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cross-validational studies of the personality correlates of the A-B therapist "type" distinction among professionals and nonprofessionals.

Notes that research with the A-B therapist "type" variable has included many analog studies in which A and B undergraduates have been assumed to be personologically similar to A and B professionals. To assess whether this "invariance assumption" is tenable across samples varying in vocational commitment/training, sex, education, and adjustment, the personality correlates of A-B status (identified in a prior study with the Personality Research Form) was cross-validated across 5 new samples. A and B Ss among 94 male professionals, 661 male undergraduates, 114 male college clinic patients, and 720 female undergraduates were compared. Univariate and multivariate analyses lent strong support to the invariance assumption: in every sample, B-type Ss exceeded A-type Ss on scales measuring risk taking, dominance, change, sentience, and "counterdependence." (32 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The subject pool.

Ethical principles regarding the research participation of undergraduate students in a required psychology course were formulated, implemented, and evaluated over 3 semesters. Because S participation was in essence voluntary and dependent on the experimenter's decision to solicit certain course sections and because explanation of the research was given to Ss, it was not possible to design studies, draw a random sample, and assign Ss to a treatment condition. Overall, few problems were found. Few students chose not to participate. 71% of Ss felt participation was a valuable learning experience, and this assessment was more likely when an explanation of the experiment had been given to Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

External validity and the use of real people as subjects.

A reinforcement effect on participation in group discussion was previously demonstrated in 11 studies using college students as Ss, but was not replicated in the present study with 96 nonstudent volunteers (age range = 17-77 yr.). The difference in results is traced to differences in operant rate for participation between the students and the "real people." Results suggest that the external validity of behavioral research is not primarily a function of the population sampled. Any population is likely to be "atypical" with respect to some behavioral characteristic. Rather, it is suggested that the generalizability of research findings is more a function of the characteristics of the population to which one attempts to generalize. Reliable findings regarding behavioral processes can be accepted as valid no matter what population is sampled in the research, but it should be recognized that the particular characteristics of another population may preclude replication of the phenomenon. (27 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of effects of small lesions in posterodorsal septum on spontaneous and rerun correction (contingently reinforced) alternation in rats.

Compared characteristics of T-maze alternation behavior by giving 11 hooded rats 7 sessions under conditions of "rerun correction" (contingent reinforcement for alternation) and another 11 Ss the same number of sessions with noncontingent reinforcements (i.e., entering either goal arm of the –T maze was reinforced). Both groups alternated significantly above chance, and the difference in medians between groups was small but significant. However, Ss given rerun correction training quickly came against the "ceiling" of 100% alternation, and individual differences were small. Scores of Ss run under conditions of "spontaneous" alternation were more variable, both within and between Ss. In a 2nd part of the study, 6 Ss in each group received small electrolytic lesions in posterodorsal septum. There were 5 operated-control Ss from each group. After 2-wk recovery all Ss were again given 7 sessions in the –T maze. Under rerun correction procedure, controls retained near-perfect alternation scores. Most Ss with lesions dropped to chance levels but recovered to control level over the sessions. Ss tested under spontaneous alternation conditions behaved quite differently. Controls continued to alternate significantly, but Ss with lesions alternated significantly less and did not recover. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Field independence and perceptions of task characteristics: A laboratory investigation.

In 2 consecutive laboratory studies using virtually identical methods, undergraduate Ss (45 and 133 Ss for Studies 1 and 2, respectively) completed the Group Embedded Figures Test in group sessions. They then performed an assembly task in a laboratory setting and completed a measure designed to assess the "immediate" and "projected" perceptions of task characteristics. Results of Study 1 show significant correlations between field independence and immediate perceptions of variety, task identity, and feedback. These results were replicated in Study 2. In addition, Study 2 revealed significant correlations between field independence and (a) immediate perceptions of interaction and (b) projected perceptions of variety and interaction. Results suggest that field independence may be a determinant of individuals' perceptions of task characteristics. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-esteem, communicator characteristics, and attitude change.

Characteristic defenses were predicted to cause different Ss to resist influence from different kinds of persuasive communications. In a 3-way factorial design, 88 Ss representing high and low self-esteem were exposed to optimistic and pessimistic communications from communicators who were portrayed as "copers" or "noncopers." Optimism-pessimism unexpectedly produced no effect. However, characteristics of the communicator interacted with characteristics of Ss in producing attitude change. High-esteem Ss were influenced more by the coper and low-esteem Ss by the noncoper, even though all Ss evaluated the noncoper unfavorably. Further investigation indicated that Ss high and low in self-esteem were themselves copers and noncopers, respectively. Ss appeared to accept persuasive influence from the communicator more comparable to themselves, regardless of how they consciously felt toward him. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Frequency and idiosyncracy of associative responses.

"Two studies were conducted to test five general hypotheses about the frequency and content of verbal associations elicited during a 30-sec. period." 20 Ss responded to 40 stimuli, and the effect of a failure-stress situation on response frequency and content was tested with 24 Ss. "Differences between Ss in frequency and idiosyncracy showed a wide range of values… . There were highly significant consistencies… within Ss across stimulus classes… . The results indicate the utility of 'controlled' associations as an individual difference variable." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Strategies of social comparison among people with low self-esteem: Self-protection and self-enhancement.

People with low self-esteem (LSE) seem to focus on self-protection; rather than trying to achieve gains for their self-esteem, they try to avoid losses. This research examined, in a social comparison context, the hypothesis that LSE Ss seek self-enhancement when they have an opportunity that is "safe," that is, carrying little risk of humiliation. Exps 1 and 2 indicated that LSE Ss sought the most social comparisons after receiving success feedback, whereas high-self-esteem (HSE) Ss sought the most comparisons after failure. Further results suggested that LSE Ss who succeeded were seizing a safe means of self-enhancement and that HSE Ss who failed were seeking to compensate for the failure. Also supporting this interpretation for LSE Ss was Exp 3, in which LSE Ss who succeeded sought the most comparisons when such comparisons promised to be favorable. All 3 studies illustrate the value of a new measure of social comparison selection. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethical issues in the use of human subjects.

Addresses 2 ethical issues in the use of human Ss in research: (1) the effects of participation in deception and obedience research on "character" and socially relevant behavior and (2) required participation of students as Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reappraisal of the A-B therapist "type" distinction in terms of the Personality Research Form.

Assessed personality dimensions involved in the A-B therapist "type" distinction which has proven predictive of therapist-patient compatibility in several clinical and analogue studies. The A-B scale scores of 223 male undergraduates were related to the 22 variables of Jackson's Personality Research Form. Multiple discriminant analyses and factor analyses strongly supported the hypothesis that A-B status is explicable in personality terms: so-called A-type Ss (predicted to be compatible with schizoid patients) were characterized by cautious self-expression, social ineptness, and a restricted cognitive scope; B-type Ss (presumably compatible with neurotic patients) appeared socially ascendant and "open" to complex experiences. Results were supported by a cross-validation study of 50 professional Ss. As in prior research, the variables differentiating A-B statuses appeared to involve a prominent "masculinity-femininity" component. (30 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-esteem and counterfactual thinking.

Two studies examined the relation between self-esteem and counterfactual thinking (consideration of "might-have-been" alternatives to reality). Ss imagined themselves in scenarios with another actor that resulted in either success or failure. Ss then "undid" the outcome by altering events that preceded the outcome. Following success, high self-esteem (HSE) Ss were more likely than low self-esteem (LSE) Ss to mutate their own actions. Following failure, LSE Ss were more likely than HSE Ss to mutate their own actions. Also, the structure of counterfactuals was influenced by outcome valence but not by self-esteem: Subtractive structures (in which antecedents are removed) were elicited by success, whereas additive structures (in which antecedents are added) were elicited by failure. The importance of the self and individual differences in self-esteem to counterfactual thinking is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Heavy drinking occasions and the occurrence of sexual activity.

With the advent of the AIDS epidemic, research on the relationship of drinking to sexual activity takes on increased importance. Although several studies have investigated the characteristics of sexual encounters that do and do not involve alcohol, few studies have examined drinking incidents that may or may not result in sexual activity. Respondents (N?=?1,110) in 3 surveys were asked about the circumstances of a recent heavy drinking occasion. Approximately one third of the Ss reported having sex during this maximum consumption episode, and the likelihood of having sex was a significant positive linear function of the amount of alcohol consumed. Ss who drank more heavily in the episode were slightly more likely to have sex with a new or casual partner. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Unintended effects of marital research on marital relationships.

Psychologists studying marriage have little guidance in understanding and controlling the unintended effects of their research procedures. To address this problem, spouses were asked to report their reactions to participating in a laboratory session and a mail survey. Most Ss reported being affected by research participation, yet most of the effects were positive and involved Ss' heightened awareness of their marriages. In a 2nd study, spouses answered questions before and after discussing a marital problem in a lab setting. Ss often reported feeling anxious about the task, but many Ss noted that the controlled setting enhanced their discussion. Negative responses to research participation were made by 3–5% of the Ss in both studies. Seven recommendations are made based on these findings for protecting the welfare of Ss who participate in research on close relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Medication status of participants in psychopathology research: Selective review of current reporting practices.

The majority of Ss included in studies of psychopathology are typically receiving psychoactive medication. In view of concerns regarding the confounding effects of psychoactive medication, it appears that researchers should provide information regarding at least the drug status of the Ss studied. A review of the articles on adult psychopathology that appeared in the Journal of Abnormal Psychology during a 5-yr period, however, revealed that nearly 50% of reports on Ss presumably receiving psychoactive medications failed to specify the medication status of those Ss. Few studies (15%) provided adequate information regarding the types and dosages of psychoactive drugs received by the Ss. It is argued that researchers should provide a full report of the psychoactive drugs received by research participants and, when participants are unmedicated, to indicate the reasons for drug-free status. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

SCHIZOPHRENIC APPERCEPTION AS A FUNCTION OF HUNGER.

"This experiment confirmed a prediction that schizophrenic Ss, when hungry, would not show in their apperceptive response pattern the normally expected increase of content pertaining to food… This failure was interpreted as a defect of "psychological homeostasis," similar to homeostatic failures previously demonstrated in schizophrenic Ss by studies in which the emphases have been physiological or psychophysiological." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Demand characteristics or conformity?: Suspiciousness of deception and experimenter bias in conformity research.

Administered to 87 undergraduates (a) the Psychology Research Survey (PRS), a measure of attitudes toward psychology experiments; and (b) a battery of attitude scales on current issues. 6 advanced undergraduate Es, led to believe that Ss had high- or low-conformity scores on the battery, presented R. Wyer's dot-estimation conformity task to Ss. Results of a postexperimental questionnaire indicate Ss' suspiciousness of deception was quite common (43.7%) and suspicious Ss conformed less. The prediction that suspicious Ss would be more positive in their attitudes on the PRS than nonsuspicious Ss was not supported. However, Ss who were aware that they were being deceived and nevertheless conformed had significantly more positive attitudes on the PRS than aware Ss who conformed less. In addition, Es who tested Ss of the opposite sex biased their results according to their expectations, while for Ss of the same sex the bias was reversed. It is apparent that conformity studies are quite susceptible to the effects of demand characteristics and that only with controlled E-S interaction and more attention to deception procedures can results be generalized. (French summary) (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)