Centrifuge Model Tests of a Rockfill Dam and Simulation Using Consolidation Analysis Method

A series of centrifuge model tests for a typical rockfill dam (central core zone type) was conducted in order to investigate behaviour of the dam due to cycles of reservoir water levels. The dam models consisted of comparatively well-compacted core zone and loosely compacted rock zone. A typical result among the model tests was also simulated by using a consolidation analysis method coupled with an elastoplastic model for unsaturated geo-materials. The main behaviour seen from the centrifuge tests was that large amounts of settlements due to wetting within the upstream rock zone were monitored; the crest of the dam at first moved toward upstream and then returned toward downstream in the first reservoir filling; and cracks along the dam axis were observed on the upper parts of the upstream and downstream slopes. A typical result of the dam model tests during reservoir filling was simulated. The simulation results showed that the settlements calculated agreed mostly with those measured; the settlements due to wetting could also be estimated within the upstream rock zone; the horizontal displacements toward upstream increased with the cycles of up-and-down water levels and they concentrated to a shallow region near the upstream surface; tension stresses were calculated at the places where the cracks were monitored in the model tests; and just after construction, arching actions in both the vertical and horizontal effective stress distributions could be seen on both the upstream and downstream boundaries between the core and rock zones but the arching action on the upstream boundary disappeared with water levels going up. The simulation method presented here provided an effective approach to analyze the behaviour of the rockfill dam during reservoir filling periods.     

Seismic performance of small earth dams with sloping core zones and geosynthetic clay liners using full-scale shaking table tests

In Japan, a large number of old small earth dams are in critical need of repair due to leakage and poor earthquake resistance. In addition to cohesive soils, geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) are used as impervious materials to repair such dams. This paper discusses the seismic performance of small earth dams, with reservoirs on their upstream side, repaired with a sloping core zone and a GCL on the basis of the results of full-scale shaking table tests performed at the E-Defense facility. The main focus is on the differences in mechanical behavior between the upstream and downstream sides of the dam. The results elucidate that the effective stress of the upstream embankment materials increased because of the undrained shear behavior of the compacted soils, although the deformation on the upstream side was larger than that on the downstream side. A large phase difference in the measured accelerations between the upstream slope and the downstream slope was also observed. Therefore, it is concluded that significant differences occurred in the dynamic behavior of the upstream side and the downstream side.     

软土地基加筋石灰土路堤离心模型试验数值模拟

 建立以离心试验几何尺寸的有限元数值模型,模拟变加速度加载下软土地基加筋石灰土路堤中的位移、土压力、孔隙水压力和加筋拉力随时间的变化规律,并与离心模型试验结果进行比较;同时,采用该数值模型计算了不加筋、加1,2层筋时路堤和地基位移情况。计算结果表明,加筋路堤沉降量、土压力、孔隙水压力和加筋拉力的计算值与离心试验实测值吻合很好或基本一致,表明该数值模型是合理的;不加筋路堤的中心沉降量和坡脚下地基水平位移比加1层筋时明显大一些,两者在加速度为100.0 g时地面坡脚处的水平位移差值达近2 mm,而加2层筋时位移与加1层筋接近。     

Seismic stability of embankments subjected to pre-deformation due to foundation consolidation

It has been reported that the major cause of earthquake damage to embankments on level ground surfaces is liquefaction of foundation soil. A few case histories, however, suggest that river levees resting on non-liquefiable foundation soil have been severely damaged if the foundation soil is highly compressible, such as thick soft clay and peat deposits. A large number of such river levees were severely damaged by the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku earthquake. A detailed inspection of the dissected damaged levees revealed that the base of the levees subsided in a bowl shape due to foundation consolidation. The liquefaction of a saturated zone, formed at the embankment base, is considered the prime cause of the damage. The deformation of the levees, due to the foundation consolidation which may have resulted in a reduction in stress and the degradation of soil density, is surmised to have contributed as an underlying mechanism. In this study, a series of centrifuge tests is conducted to experimentally verify the effects of the thickness of the saturated zone in embankments and of the foundation consolidation on the seismic damage to embankments. It is found that the thickness of the saturated zone in embankments and the drainage boundary conditions of the zone have a significant effect on the deformation of the embankments during shaking. For an embankment on a soft clay deposit, horizontal tensile strain as high as 6% was observed at the zone above the embankment base and horizontal stress was approximately half that of the embankment on stiff foundation soil. Crest settlement and the deformation of the embankment during shaking were larger for the embankment subjected to deformation due to foundation consolidation.     

石灰改良土填筑边坡合理坡率的研究

石灰改良土填筑的路基,强度高、稳定性良好,与传统路基相比,坡率更大、路基土方工程量和造价更低,但石灰改良土填筑路堤结构边坡坡率的确定方法尚不明确。阐述了石灰改良土边坡强度的形成机理及微观特性,利用Geo-Slope软件建立理想边坡模型并对边坡稳定性随着边坡坡率以及边坡高度变化的规律进行了探讨,结合某省两个不同场区的边坡工程实例,总结了不同坡率和高度对工程稳定的影响并提出了合理的坡率。     

袖阀管劈裂注浆加固粉土路基实验研究

通过室内大型模拟实验,对粉土路基强度、刚度在毛细水作用下的衰减规律和袖阀管劈裂注浆加固路基的效果进行研究。实验模拟新建路基、潜水位20 cm/50 cm的毛细水作用路基、袖阀管注浆劈裂土体加固路基等4个工况,得到粉土路基土体含水率的分布规律和物理力学指标;在分级循环加卸荷载的作用下,得到路基模型总体刚度、受力和变形的特性;挖除路基模型,观察袖阀微桩及浆液扩散的形态。结果表明：毛细水作用可使粉土路基模型总体刚度降低70%,土体抗剪强度下降,路基竖向塑性变形随荷载增大快速增加;水平分层劈裂土体凝固的浆液不仅阻断了毛细水的上升通道,而且与底端扩大的微桩形成空间骨架与土体共同作用,骨架与土体各承担荷载大约50%,袖阀管加固粉土路基效果显著。     

Consolidation of soft clay foundation improved by geosynthetic-reinforced granular columns: Numerical evaluation

Soft clays are problematic soils as they present high compressibility and low shear strength. There are several methods for improving in situ conditions of soft clays. Based on the geotechnical problem's geometry and characteristics, the in situ conditions may require reinforcement to restrain instability and construction settlements. Granular columns reinforced by geosynthetic material are widely used to reduce settlements of embankments on soft clays. They also accelerate the consolidation rate by reducing the drainage path's length and increasing the foundation soil's bearing capacity. In this study, the performance of encased and layered granular columns in soft clay is investigated and discussed. The numerical results show the significance of geosynthetic stiffness and the column length on the embankment settlements. Furthermore, the results show that granular columns may play an important role in dissipating the excess pore water pressures and accelerating the consolidation settlements of embankments on soft clays.     

不同浸水时间黄河堤防土体强度特性试验研究

 土体抗剪强度参数在堤防边坡稳定性分析中是十分重要的,现行堤防设计规范没有涉及堤防土体浸水后强度特性变化情况。考虑黄河下游堤防洪水历史和堤防临水状况,进行堤身土体的固结压缩、直接快剪和不固结不排水三轴试验,特别是土样浸水后的强度特性试验,研究堤防土体浸水后强度指标的变化及其机制。试验结果表明：黄河下游堤防堤身土体浸水5 d后黏土压缩系数增大1.46倍,黏聚力最大降低72.6%;粉土压缩系数增大0.64倍,黏聚力最大降低62.8%,而2种土的内摩擦角变化较小。试验结果为黄河下游堤防标准化设计和堤坡稳定性分析提供了科学依据,并对黄河堤防的管理提出了建议。     

对采用“有效固结应力强度指标进行稳定分析”公式的修正

根据有效固结应力的基本原理以及结构性软土在不同应力水平下抗剪强度的不同特征 ,对当前在堤、坝、边坡等稳定分析中广泛采用的用“有效固结应力强度指标进行稳定分析”的公式中的若干问题进行了分析讨论 ,并给出了修正公式     

Earthquake-Induced Flow Slides of Fills and Infinite Slopes

Earthquake induced flow slides of saturated or partially saturated sloping ground have taken place in man-made earth structures during past earthquakes. Two series of dynamic centrifuge model tests (1:50 scale) were conducted to simulate the behavior of embankment fills and infinite slopes resting on a stiff sloping base. Conditions that yield earthquake-induced flow slide were investigated. The test parameters included soil density, slope angle, level of phreatic water and shaking intensity. The test results showed that downward deformation increased with decreasing soil density, increasing phreatic water elevation and shaking intensity, and that there existed a threshold soil density below which flow slides occurred. Undrained monotonic loading torsional simple shear tests were also conducted. Conditions inducing very large deformation or flow slide that were obtained by the undrained shear tests were consistent with those observed in the model tests.     

公路软基蠕变—固结耦合有限元分析

软土的蠕变特性常常导致路堤出现沉降过大、甚至失稳等现象。本文采用同时考虑蠕变和固结效应的修正的广义Kelvin蠕变—固结模型,对公路软基的时效性变形进行了有限元分析。在某软基上路堤填筑工程的变形分析中,该方法的计算结果和监测数据基本吻合,由此验证了该模型的有效性。本文针对该工程进行了一系列的参数分析,讨论了软土的蠕变效应、塑料排水板布置方式和堆载速率等因素对该路堤变形发展和路堤稳定性的影响。     

Displacements of column-supported embankments over soft clay after widening considering soil consolidation and column layout: Numerical analysis

The common challenges for constructing embankments on soft clay include low bearing capacity, large total and differential settlements, and slope instability. Different techniques have been adopted to improve soft clay, such as the use of foundation columns including stone columns, deep mixed columns, and vibro-concrete columns, etc. Due to increased traffic volume, column-supported embankments may be widened to accommodate the traffic capacity need. Adding a new embankment to an existing embankment generates additional stresses and deformations under not only the widened portion but also the existing embankment. Differential settlements between and within the existing embankment and the widened portion may cause pavement distresses. Limited research has been conducted so far to investigate widening of column-supported embankments. In this study, a two-dimensional finite difference numerical method was adopted. This numerical method was first verified against field data and then used for the analysis of widened column-supported embankments over soft clay. The modified Cam-Clay model was used to model the soil under the existing embankment and the widened portion. Mechanically and hydraulically coupled numerical models were created to consider the consolidation of the foundation soil under the existing embankment and the widened portion. Different layouts of foundation columns under the existing embankment and the widened portion were investigated. The numerical results presented in this paper include the vertical and horizontal displacements, the maximum settlements, the transverse gradient changes, and the stress concentration ratios, which depended on column spacing. The columns installed under the connection side slope were most effective in reducing the total and differential settlements, horizontal displacement, and transverse gradient change of the widened embankment.     

爆炸液化场地上堤坝变形的模型试验研究

饱和砂土地基在地震、爆炸等振动荷载作用下易发生液化,从而使堤坝等上部构筑物发生破坏。开展了爆炸液化场地上堤坝变形的大型模型试验,考虑了筑坝材料以及堤坝地基加固措施对堤坝变形和坝身裂缝的影响。试验表明:堤坝沉降主要发生在场地液化后的1~2 h内,该段时间内产生的沉降占7 d时沉降量的84%~87%;掺加了碎石的堤坝比未加碎石的堤坝7 d时沉降量大24%;地基内采用土工格栅+土工布的加固措施能够有效减少堤坝在液化场地上的沉降,比未加固的堤坝沉降减少了10%。堤坝的裂缝主要出现在细骨料筑成的坝段和不同筑坝材料的交界处,沿坝身开展。总结了国内外规范中对于液化地基沉降的计算及预测方法,根据液化地基上浅基础建筑物沉降图表对试验中的堤坝沉降进行了推算,发现实测沉降与推算沉降比较接近。     

Field study on swelling-shrinkage response of an expansive soil foundation under high-speed railway embankment loads

This paper presents a comprehensive field investigation of the swelling-shrinkage behavior of an expansive soil ground under high-speed railway embankment loads. In this study, a test site close to the Kunming-Nanning high-speed railway (KNHR) was chosen for the construction of four full-scale field test facilities for artificially soaking the expansive soil ground. Three of the facilities consist of embankments of three different heights, while the fourth facility is for a series of plate load swelling tests. All the test embankments were fully instrumented to monitor the ground deformation and the changes in volumetric water content profiles of the foundations. The full-scale field tests were complemented by a detailed site investigation comprised of cone penetration tests (CPTs), standard penetration tests (SPTs) and a comprehensive laboratory characterization of intact expansive soil samples retrieved from the test site. The results obtained from the laboratory and field tests show that the swelling behavior of the expansive soil ground mainly depends on the embankment load. By properly designing the embankment height and considering the maximum swelling pressure the expansive ground could induce, the heave of the embankment could be controlled efficiently. The measured displacements at the ground surface are well correlated with the evolution of measured volumetric water contents within a ground depth of around 4.5?m. The majority of these displacements occurred when the ground was approaching saturation along both wetting and drying paths. Finally, a simple method based on one-dimensional test results was proposed, and a good performance was shown in predicting the heave or settlement of embankments over an expansive soil ground upon wetting and drying.     

A reinforcing method for steep clay slopes using a non-woven geotextile

The effect of non-woven geotextile reinforcement on the stability and deformation of two clay test embankments is examined based on their performance for about 3 years for the first embankment and about years for the other. Horizontal planar sheets of a non-woven geotextile are expected to work in three ways: for compaction control; for drainage; for tensile reinforcement. The degree of stability of the steep slopes of the test embankments decreased during heavy rainfall. It is found that the use of non-woven geotextile reinforcement may effectively improve embankment performance. Only the stability analysis in terms of effective stresses can explain the performance of the test embankments. The horizontal creep deformation of the embankments during 2–3 years, which is partly attributed to the creep deformation of the non-woven geotextile, was found to be small. The results of both laboratory bearing capacity tests of a strip footing on a model sand ground reinforced with the non-woven geotextile and plane strain compression tests on sand specimens reinforced with the non-woven geotextile show that the non-woven geotextile gives tensile reinforcement to soils.     

3D coupled mechanical and hydraulic modeling of a geosynthetic-reinforced deep mixed column-supported embankment

Numerical studies were conducted to improve the understanding of the behavior of geosynthetic-reinforced column-supported embankments. Due to the complexity of the problem, so far, consolidation process and three-dimensional patterns of columns have not been well simulated in most published numerical studies. As a result, the time-dependant behavior and the serviceability of this system have not been well evaluated. In this study, a three-dimensional coupled mechanical and hydraulic modeling was conducted using FLAC3D to consider consolidation and three-dimensional arrangement of columns. This study was based on a well-documented bridge approach embankment reinforced by a layer of geotextile and supported by deep mixed (DM) columns. The foundation soils including soft clay and silt, the embankment fill, and the deep mixed columns were modeled as linearly elastic-perfectly plastic materials with Mohr–Coulomb failure criteria. The geotextile reinforcement was simulated by geogrid elements incorporated in the FLAC3D software, which can sustain in-plane tensile force only. The staged construction was simulated by building the embankment in lifts. The duration of each lift was the same as the actual construction time plus the lapse time between two consecutive stages. The development of settlement and tension in the geotextile with time is compared with the long-term monitoring data and yields good agreement. The generation and dissipation of excess pore water pressure during and after construction are presented and discussed.     

路堤荷载下土工织物散体桩复合地基离心模型试验

进行了2组不同筋材刚度土工织物散体桩复合地基路堤离心模型试验,和1组碎石桩复合地基路堤的对比试验,以研究其在真实应力条件下的性状及稳定性。研究结果表明:随着筋材刚度的增大,地基中的超孔隙水压力略有减小,桩顶和桩间土沉降明显减小,而桩顶和桩间土之间的差异沉降明显增大;桩土应力比随筋材刚度的增大先增长明显,而后趋于缓慢;当筋材刚度较低或上覆荷载很大时,土工织物散体桩可发生显著的弯曲变形而引起较大的沉降,碎石桩则在软土中容易发生鼓胀变形而引起很大的沉降,但两者均未在复合地基中形成剪切滑移的趋势。     

含裂缝砾石土的反滤准则

砾石土为高土石坝普遍采用的防渗材料。由于分层施工填筑或心墙拱效应,高土石坝的防渗心墙常会出现裂缝,对于含裂缝砾石土的反滤设计准则的研究成果缺乏。开展了不同含砾量的含裂缝砾石土在不同级配、不同密度的反滤料保护情况下的反滤试验研究。总结了现有的适用于砾石土的反滤设计准则并与试验结果进行对比分析。分析表明现有反滤准则都不能完全适用于含裂缝砾石土的反滤设计。基于试验和对比分析结果,同时考虑含裂缝砾石土及反滤料联合抗渗机理,提出了适用于含裂缝砾石土的反滤准则。用反滤试验结果进行验证表明本文提出的反滤准则适用于不同含砾量的含裂缝砾石土的反滤设计。     

十字板剪切试验在路基拓宽中的应用

武荆高速公路天门连接线改扩建工程中,需要对新老路基土的强度差异进行准确评价,为新老路基处治方案设计提供依据。采用十字板剪切试验手段,对相同深度下新老路基土的强度进行了对比研究,并与钻孔取样室内试验结果进行了比较,发现十字板剪切试验是一种评价拓宽新老路基土强度差异的较好方法。     

Sensitivity analysis of a scrap tire embankment using Bayesian influence diagrams

Scrap tires have several properties that make them preferable to other materials as fills for embankment construction, including light weight (the dry unit weight is 1/3 that of soils), high hydraulic conductivity (up to 23.5 cm/s), and low thermal conductivity. These properties of scrap tire fills result in low lateral pressures on the abutment wall and in reduced design and construction costs. The low thermal conductivity helps to prevent permafrost action of soil layers beneath it and failure of the subgrade due to frost penetration.However, scrap tires possess high compressibility, a property that leads to settlement of the fill and consequent failure of the embankment. Other undesirable attributes of scrap tire embankments are susceptibility to internal heating and leaching of substances into surrounding water.An efficient means of controlling such undesirable attributes in the field is by comparing them with those simulated from a model embankment developed using Bayesian influence diagrams. In this work, the essential responses simulated using the Analytica^® software program are the temperature, lateral pressure, settlements, and leachate characteristics. The most critical embankment characteristics, based on the maximum probability densities, are the settlement and horizontal pressures, which are relatively low at 0.428 and 0.0034, respectively, because the likelihood that these values will be exceeded in the field is high. Temperature response was not considered critical because the maximum probability density simulated was 0.9301. Limits for leachate concentrations were also obtained for the model embankment based on ASTM D 6270 (1998) standards.