Performance of an instrumented slope covered with shrubs and deep-rooted grass

Green technology, an integrated design approach that combines vegetation and engineering design methods, can be applied to improve slope stability. Orange Jasmine is a small tropical evergreen shrub which has deep root systems and is considered to be a drought-tolerant plant that adapts well to a wide range of climatic and soil conditions. It can also grow in infertile soils, limestone soils or loam. Vetiver grass has been widely cultivated in many tropical and subtropical regions of the world for soil and water conservation, land rehabilitation, and embankment stabilization. Vetiver grass has deep roots (2–4 m) and adapts well under extreme conditions of temperature, soil, moisture, soil acidity, and alkalinity. The role of Orange Jasmine and Vetiver grass in minimizing rainwater infiltration, for improving the stability of slopes, was investigated on a soil slope in Singapore with its tropical climate. Two slope sections, covered with Orange Jasmine and Vetiver grass, were instrumented with tensiometers, installed at different depths within the slope, and a rainfall gauge. The instruments were connected to a real-time monitoring system to study the pore-water pressure, the rainfall, and the groundwater level in the slope throughout a one-year period. The pore-water pressure characteristics within the slope sections covered with Orange Jasmine and Vetiver grass are analyzed and presented in this paper. The analyses indicate that both Orange Jasmine and Vetiver grass played a significant role in reducing rainwater infiltration into the slope, minimizing the loss of matric suction, and hence, the shear strength of the soil during rainfall and, as a result, maintained the stability of the slope. Vetiver grass and Orange Jasmine appeared to be similar in effectiveness in terms of reducing the rainwater infiltration into the slope.     

Response of Unsaturated Sandy Soils Under Constant Shear Stress Drained Condition

In order to understand the mechanism and conditions leading to failure of sandy slopes due to the infiltration of rainwater, constant shear stress drained triaxial tests were conducted on three sets of soil samples-normal sand, gravelly sand and silty sand-taken from natural slopes where large-scale landslides have occurred in the past. Water was infiltrated from the bottom of an initially unsaturated soil specimen under constant shear stress drained condition until failure occurred. Such a loading pattern simulated the stress path followed by a soil element on a potential failure plane on a slope subjected to rainwater infiltration. The effects of various parameters reflecting the initial condition, such as relative density, principal stress ratio, degree of saturation and infiltration rate, on the development of deformation during the infiltration process were investigated. The test results confirmed that the development of pore water pressure within the soil is the main reason for the failure of slopes during heavy rainfall. The results obtained can serve as guidelines in developing warning systems against impending rainfall-induced slope failures.     

Influence of intrusive granite dyke on rainfall-induced soil slope failure

Intrusive granite dykes and their weathered layers can have great effects on seepage into slopes and on their stability. However, few studies of this topic have been reported. Using the Zhonglincun landslide as an example, we investigate the impact of a dyke and its weathered layer on the formation mechanism of a rainfall-induced residual soil slope failure. The sliding mass of Zhonglincun landslide is mainly composed of residual soils of both tuff and an intrusive granite dyke. We used laboratory soil column tests to obtain rainfall infiltration characteristics of the two residual soils. The SEEP/W mode of Geo-studio software was then used to replicate the above soil column tests to back-analyze unsaturated hydraulic parameters of the two soils, which were later used to simulate seepage fields and stress-strain fields of the slope under Typhoon Tailim. The results indicate that the movement of rainwater in the residual soil of the granite dyke is much faster than that of the residual soil of the tuff. Rainwater infiltrates rapidly into the granite soil, and then flows laterally into the tuff residual soil, raising the groundwater table in the slope, especially near the contact between the two residual soils. This leads to a rapid increase in pore-water pressure and initiates the serious deformation of the landslide. The granite dyke and its residual soil have played a key role in the formation of Zhonglincun landslide.

     

考虑蒸发影响的非饱和土坡渗流分析

运用分形模型理论预测了粘土、粉土与砂土的土-水特征曲线与导水系数曲线。讨论了大气降雨-蒸发作用对非饱和渗流场的变化规律。在大气蒸发作用下,粘土边坡表层土体的负孔压逐渐增大。随着降雨入渗,粘土边坡坡脚处的土体首先达到饱和状态,并出现正孔隙水压。在降雨过程中,粉土边坡与砂土边坡的坡脚处,难以形成正孔隙水压。粘土边坡的实际降雨入渗量较小,且与土体的初始含水量、降雨类型、土体的导水系数等因素有关。非饱和土的实际蒸发量不等于其饱和状态时的土体蒸发能力。当土体达到饱和状态时,两值相等。实际蒸发量与潜在蒸发量的比值是土体表层基质吸力的函数。     

Performance of Horizontal Drains in Residual Soil Slopes

In tropical and subtropical regions, shallow landslides often occur in residual soil slopes. Short-duration, high-intensity rainfall will increase the pore-water pressure. As a result, the shear strength of the soil in the slopes decreases and the stability of the slopes is affected. In this study, horizontal drains were installed in a residual soil slope in Singapore in order to improve the stability of the slope. The slope was instrumented with tensiometers and piezometers to investigate the effectiveness of the horizontal drains as a slope stabilization method against rainfall-induced slope failures. The variations in water table elevation and matric suction in the slope due to rainfall events were monitored. In addition, numerical analyses of the seepage into the slope brought about by the rainfall were carried out, and the results showed a reasonably good agreement with the data obtained from field measurements. The field measurement results indicated that horizontal drains were indeed effective for lowering the water table and for increasing the stability of the investigated slope. Therefore, horizontal drains are considered to be a useful and economical method for improving the stability of residual soil slopes against rainfall.     

强降雨下无黏性土坡破坏的影响因素试验研究

利用自行研制的室内水槽模型试验系统,对日本#6,#7和#8硅砂试样开展了固定降雨强度(90 mm/h)下诱发无黏性土坡破坏的模型试验;描述了强降雨条件下无黏性土坡的破坏过程,探讨了坡体厚度、前缘卸荷、土样颗粒尺寸及细颗粒含量对破坏过程的影响规律,分析了土坡破坏过程中的孔隙水压力响应特征.结果表明:①在持续强降雨作用下,...     

Theoretical analysis and model test for rainfall-induced shallow landslides in the red-bed area of Sichuan

Heavy rainfall is a key cause of shallow landslides in red-bed terrains with steep topography and residual soils of degradable strength. In this study, laboratory model tests were carried out to examine the characteristics of rainfall infiltration, deformation, and failures of slopes in the red-bed area of Sichuan. The hydrological response and deformation of the slope soil during rainfall are addressed. Based on a modified Green–Ampt infiltration model, ponding along the bedrock surface is incorporated. A physically based model for shallow landslides caused by rainfall is developed. The theoretical analysis and the model test results indicate that the slope failures are related to erosion in the shallow soil layer and rainwater infiltration, particularly along preferential seepage channels. The process of rainfall-induced shallow landslides can be separated into three stages: erosion at the slope toe, tension crack formation at the slope crest, and shallow sliding. When initial underground water level is located at the bedrock surface or the preferential seepage flow quickly reaches the bedrock surface, it is easier for the soil slopes to slide along the bedrock surface than along the wetting front.     

Impact of the wetting process on the hydro-mechanical behavior of unsaturated residual soil from flysch rock mass: preliminary results

Slope instabilities in the form of shallow and deep-seated landslides in flysch formations throughout Europe typically occur after prolonged periods of heavy rainfall. The Rječina River Valley, Croatia, is characterized by the presence of flysch material in the lower part of the Valley, where numerous historical and recent landslides have occurred. The weathering process and climate conditions result in a complex engineering geological profile of flysch slopes in the Valley, with unsaturated residual soil covering the slopes. To investigate the behavior of residual soil existing on the flysch slope under increasing water content due to the rainfall infiltration process, undisturbed soil samples collected at natural water content were tested in the modified direct shear apparatus. Under imposed stress conditions, samples of low hydraulic conductivity were subjected to a prolonged wetting process simulating the rainfall infiltration process in the field. The obtained results suggest that a gradual decrease of matric suction and an increase of water content resulted in an increase of displacement rates under constant shear stress, which was interpreted as a failure of samples in partially saturated conditions. A unique shear strength envelope expressed in terms of Bishop’s effective stress equation was found to be able to predict stress conditions at the slip surface at the time of failure, while the relationship between measured matric suction and water content closely matched with the main wetting curve. Although the testing results did not point out any special characteristics of residual soil from flysch rock mass behavior, the data about hydro-mechanical behavior of unsaturated residual soil from flysch rock mass, as well as similar fine-grained soils, are very rare and presented results would be valuable for further research. The presented testing procedure and obtained results are useful for studies of rainfall-induced landslides triggered in fine-grained soil materials in zones above the phreatic line, such as shallow landslides occurring in natural flysch slopes or in physical landslide models built in laboratories.

     

强降雨条件下含软弱夹层粘性土坡稳定性分析

为了分析含软弱夹层粘性土坡在强降雨条件下的稳定性,结合某失稳边坡工程现场实际调研资料,基于饱和非饱和渗流与非饱和抗剪强度理论,提出了一种新的含软弱夹层粘性土坡稳定性分析方法,并利用该方法分析了强降雨条件下边坡的渗流特性及安全系数变化规律。分析结果表明:降雨入渗先在边坡软弱夹层内形成暂态饱和区,且当坡顶入渗的雨水未渗流至软弱夹层时,夹层内暂态饱和区中的雨水会沿夹层上表面向着坡顶方向渗流;降雨入渗过程中,边坡基质吸力与铅直有效应力之间存在严格的正相关变化关系;随着降雨历时的增加,塑性区首先在软弱夹层内部贯通,然后向坡顶扩展,边坡安全系数逐渐降低;降雨停止一段时间后,由于坡顶入渗雨水的补给,软弱夹层内局部将仍存在暂态饱和区,此时,塑性区面积会由坡顶向软弱夹层内部减小,再由夹层内部至坡面逐渐缩减,但边坡安全系数并未明显上升;根据数值计算结果可将粘性土坡失稳过程分为夹层软化、夹层挤压、拉伸裂缝、坡顶沉降和断裂滑移等5个阶段。因此,为了降低强降雨对边坡稳定性的影响,在含软弱夹层粘性土坡支护设计时应着重考虑边坡排水系统的合理布设。     

无限长均质斜坡降雨入渗解析解

降雨是导致边坡失稳的最主要的环境因素,研究降雨入渗对边坡稳定性的影响,关键和难点是计算降雨入渗在边坡土体中引起的渗流场。采用Fourier积分变换分别对降雨强度小于和大于土体饱和渗透系数情况下的斜坡入渗解析解进行了推导,并给出了这两种情况下斜坡入渗解析解的统一表达式。该解不仅能反映非饱和土特性及斜坡的影响,还能反映当降雨强度大于土体饱和渗透系数时,坡面边界由流量边界转化为水头边界的动态变化过程,便于更全面地对降雨情况下斜坡的入渗规律进行研究。通过与有限元软件的计算结果进行对比,证明该解是稳定可靠的,且其形式简单,计算效率高;该解可精确计算坡面积水时间及任意时间点及空间点的孔隙水压力值,并用于评估降雨入渗对非饱和土斜坡稳定性的影响。     

GIS-based three-dimensional slope stability analysis considering rainfall infiltration

Rainfall-induced landslides are a major cause of slope failure in mountainous areas. As rainfall begins to infiltrate a slope the wetting front advances into the soil and reduces its shear strength. Slope failures occur when the reduced shear strength becomes less than the resisting shear strength needed for equilibrium. These areas of instability are usually located near the ground surface where pore-water pressure changes rapidly during infiltration. The wetting front depth in a slope plays an important role in slope stability. In this study a well-known infiltration model, the Green and Ampt model, is integrated into three GIS-based three-dimensional limit equilibrium methods to assess the impact of rainfall on slope stability. This infiltration model can predict the depth of the wetting front during steady and unsteady rainfall. The applied three-dimensional methods are modified according to different positions of the wetting front to reflect the influence of rainfall on slope stability. This approach is capable of calculating safety factors corresponding to individual rainfall events and is also capable of predicting the corresponding failure time. The accuracy of the presented study has been verified by simulating the failure process of a real landslide triggered by a rainstorm.     

持续小强度降雨入渗对非饱和土边坡稳定性的动态影响

以含水量作为土体抗剪强度的主要控制参量,分析了边坡含水量和抗剪强度随降雨时间的变化特性,建立了持续小强度降雨入渗条件下非饱和边坡土的总凝聚力和内摩擦角与时间的关系.随着降雨持续进行,边坡降雨影响区域扩大.通过FLAC3D进行强度折减,得到了持续降雨过程不同时间段的边坡动态安全系数和边坡失稳前的持续时间.工程计算结果表明,持续小强度降雨条件下边坡临界滑动面仍处在非饱和状态.     

非饱和砂土坡面降雨非正交入渗试验与数值模拟研究

传统降雨入渗分析仅以降雨强度在坡面上的正交分量作为边界条件,不符合实际降雨非正交入渗规律。为了研究非饱和砂土的非正交入渗规律性,采用自行研制的室内降雨试验装置对非饱和砂土坡面进行了一系列不同降雨强度、坡角和孔隙比的降雨入渗试验,并对应地进行了正交入渗条件下的数值模拟。测量了入渗率、出渗速率及砂土储水增量随时间变化的关系曲线,分析了雨强、坡角和孔隙比对试验结果的影响。试验结果显示各试验中均无坡面径流现象,与正交入渗边界理论差异显著。通过分析非饱和砂土在传统坡面降雨正交入渗边界条件下的入渗率、出渗速率及砂土储水增量等数值模拟结果与对应的降雨入渗试验结果的差异,证明按正交入渗边界理论计算得到的砂土坡面土体含水率、入渗能力及坡面边界条件转化的判别机制均与实际情况不符。     

降雨诱发粉土边坡失稳的离心模型试验及雨强-历时警戒曲线的验证

中国东南沿海山地丘陵地区气候湿润,每年梅雨季和台风侵袭时都伴随有大量土质滑坡,研究降雨诱发土质滑坡的失稳模式和机理对该类滑坡预警预报及防治具有重要意义。笔者自行研制了离心机机载降雨模拟装置,在50g条件下模拟和再现了非饱和粉土边坡在不同强度降雨条件下的失稳破坏过程,揭示了降雨诱发粉土边坡的失稳模式为坡脚局部失稳—向上扩展—整体浅层滑动,滑动面深度介于1~3 m。3组试验获得了降雨强度与边坡失稳时降雨历时关系数据,与李鹤等针对东南沿海地区残积土边坡提出的雨强-历时警戒曲线（I-D曲线）最为接近,验证了该降雨量警戒曲线的有效性。对离心模型试验结果进行反分析表明：非饱和土渗流分析能有效模拟边坡降雨入渗过程,而现有极限平衡分析方法难以准确捕捉降雨诱发边坡由局部向整体发展的失稳过程。基于所揭示的失稳模式,指出了该类降雨诱发滑坡的有效防治措施主要包括坡脚加强排水和支护、坡面防渗和防护。     

Analyses and design of steep slope with GeoBarrier system (GBS) under heavy rainfall

A GeoBarrier system (GBS) is a combination system of reinforced soil walls to stabilize near-vertical cut slopes and capillary barrier principles to protect the wall from the effect of rainfall infiltration. Singapore requires construction materials that are cost-effective to support sustainable urban development. Therefore, recycled materials are utilized as GBS materials to avoid the use of high-cost materials, such as steel or concrete. GBS consists of planting geobags with unique geosynthetic pockets for sustainable plant growth as a facing layer of GBS. The negative pore-water pressure (suction) within the reinforced soil behind GBS was assured to be constant during rainfall since GBS is designed specially to minimize the rainfall infiltration into the reinforced soil. This paper presents the practical design and stability analysis of the GBS, considering the presence of suction within the reinforced soil body. The monitoring of GBS performance in the field was carried out via field instrumentation. Finite element analyses of the GBS under extreme rainfalls were also performed for evaluation of the GBS performance. The field instrumentations and numerical analysis results showed that GBS was able to protect the slope from rainfall infiltration; therefore, the stability of the slope retained by GBS was not affected by the rainfall. Results from the analytical calculation showed that the most critical mode of failure is sliding along the base, followed by the global and local slope stability. The GBS is not susceptible to local instability.     

Numerical simulations of triaxial shearing-infiltration tests

The failure of steep slopes during rainfall is commonly associated with a decrease in matric suction in the unsaturated soil zone above the water table. The shear strength characteristics of residual soil under water infiltration have been studied in the laboratory using unsaturated triaxial tests. This paper presents a development of a numerical model for simulating a triaxial shearing-infiltration test to investigate the shear strength characteristics of a compacted kaolin under infiltration condition. Both the hydraulic and mechanical responses of the compacted kaolin are modeled using the commercial software SIGMA/W and in-house software YS-Slope. The numerical analyses result and their validation against laboratory test results are presented and discussed in this paper. The results from the numerical analyses show good agreements with those from the laboratory tests, indicating that the proposed numerical model can be used to simulate the triaxial shearing-infiltration tests in laboratory.     

降雨条件下坡积土边坡暂态饱和区形成机理及分布规律

降雨是引起坡积土边坡失稳的最常见外部因素之一.雨水的入渗在引起土体抗剪强度参数降低的同时,还将导致土体重度的增加、基质吸力的降低,最终造成边坡的失稳.开展雨水在边坡内部的渗流过程研究已成为分析边坡在降雨条件下稳定性的前提.基于有限元数值模拟方法,进行了雨水在土体中渗流过程的模拟,着眼于降雨条件下边坡暂态饱和区的形成、分布及消散特征,描述了该过程中边坡内部含水率、基质吸力、水力梯度的变化规律.结果表明:暂态饱和区形成的主要原因是土体中向湿润锋下方渗出的雨水量小于降雨入渗补给量,从而使得土体中的含水率累积升高;暂态饱和区的形成与降雨强度、降雨时间具有十分密切的关系,暂态饱和区形成时间、雨水入渗深度、土体表面体积含水率大小分别与降雨强度存在函数关系;清晰描述了暂态饱和区形成-发展-消散-地下水位升高的全过程,从该过程看,边坡排水措施的设计值得思考.     

考虑降雨影响的非饱和土基坑边坡突变失稳分析

降雨入渗往往是非饱和土基坑边坡失稳的主要诱发因素之一,同时边坡失稳又具有突发性。基于突变理论提出了考虑降雨入渗影响的非饱和土基坑边坡稳定性分析方法。根据分析边坡稳定性的塑性极限方法的上限理论建立了边坡失稳尖点突变模型,并得出边坡突发式滑坡的特征关系式,用突变理论对非饱和土边坡稳定进行了初步研究。研究表明,基坑边坡失稳是一种突发性的破坏,外界环境的变化(如降雨入渗导致土体抗剪强度的降低)是基坑边坡发生突发性破坏的决定性因素。     

A study of the weathering of the bukit timah granite part a: Review,field observations and geophysical survey

The Bukit Timah granite exhibits a full range of weathering grades. Examination of these exposures shows that the weathering has been rapid. Field observations and geophysical surveys show that the rock has been weathered up to 70 meters depth, and that the main mechanisms of weathering is chemical decomposition. The humid tropical condition in Singapore with high annual precipitation has produced secondary weathering of the residual soil. The weathering profiles suggest that the weathering of the Bukit Timah granite is stratified with weathered layers and a sharp boundary between the residual soil and the slightly to moderately weathered granite. This paper (Part A) is a review of current weathering classification systems for weathered rock. Some results from field observations and geophysical surveys are also presented in the paper. A weathering classification and determination method is proposed for the Bukit Timah granite. Results from field and laboratory investigations of the weathering of the granite and material properties will be presented in Part B.     

非饱和土的性状及膨胀土边坡稳定问题

主要叙述非饱和膨胀土及其边坡稳定研究方面的新进展。首先讨论了非饱和土研究中与土坡稳定性有关的若干重要特性,指出非饱和土的气 水形态问题是非饱和土研究的一个基本问题。并提出随含水率由小变大,非饱和土存在四种气 水形态,不同气 水形态的土具有不尽相同的性状。然后,对非饱和土的吸力和土水特征曲线以及不同气 水形态下的强度作了讨论,并对非饱和土的本构关系作了简要的介绍。接着以南水北调中线膨胀土渠道工程为背景,以吸力问题为中心,对非饱和膨胀土边坡滑动的各种内在的和外界的因素进行了分析,尤其对新近研究的降雨入渗和裂隙影响的研究进行了定量的分析,改变了以往对这方面只进行定性研究的情况。在此基础上对边坡失稳的机理和考虑裂隙及雨水入渗的稳定分析方法进行了研究。