Influence of the Transport Properties of the Crystal/Heat Transfer Surface Interfacial on Fouling Behavior

One method to reduce fouling is to extend the induction time by a defined modification of the interfacial interactions between the heat transfer surface and the crystalline deposit. Since these interactions are a result of both molecular and mechanical forces, two approaches for fouling mitigation have been developed: (a) Modification of the energy related properties of the heat transfer surface and (b) Modification of the geometry related properties of the heat transfer surface.     

考虑关键换热器备用的原油预热系统清垢周期优化

原油结垢是原油预热过程面临的一个严峻问题,它使换热器的传热系数降低,影响正常的生产过程。应对原油预热过程的结垢问题最普遍的方法就是对换热器进行周期清洁,并优化清洁周期。许多结垢严重的行业都采用换热器备用的方式来减少因换热器离线造成的热回收减小,但原油预热系统尚未考虑,因而进一步考虑了关键换热器的备用来进行原油预热系统清垢周期优化。首先选取关键换热器,再通过模拟退火算法进行清洁周期优化。应用所提出的方法对简化的原油预热系统进行了清垢周期优化,结果显示,考虑换热器备用时所得到的清垢周期经济效益更好。     

Development and evaluation of vipertex enhanced heat transfer tubes for use in fouling conditions

Heat transfer enhancement is important in the development of high performance thermal systems. Some enhanced tubes that are currently on the market are vulnerable to fouling. Economic and technical problems associated with fouling in process systems have been previously discussed in literature; however, they still require additional examination. Parameters that influence fouling include: surface geometry, surface temperature, surface material/finish, fluid dynamics, flow velocity and fluid properties. Vipertex? enhanced surfaces are optimized process surfaces that increase heat transfer through a combination of factors that include: increasing fluid turbulence, secondary flow development, disruption of the thermal boundary layer and increasing the heat transfer surface area. Vipertubes? that have been exposed to a fouling environment produce more heat transfer than smooth tubes exposed to the same fouling conditions; additionally there was less total fouling over a given time period. The reduction in the rate of fouling is the result of secondary flow patterns that form as a result of the patented Vipertex surface design. These secondary flows circulate near the tube surface and clean it; slowing down the buildup of materials. Vipertex EHT series tubes enhance heat transfer (even under fouling conditions), minimize operating costs and recover more energy than smooth tubes under the same conditions. These surfaces provide an opportunity to advance the design of various heat transfer products.     

高频电磁场抑垢效果的实验研究

用高频电磁法进行换热设备的抑垢处理,具有应用方便、投资小、无污染等优点,是一种极具发展前景的应用技术。但有效评价高频电磁场在线抑垢效果的策略及手段还很欠缺。基于污垢热阻值的在线监测技术,通过自主研发的在线监测评价实验系统采集和处理模拟换热器中研究管段的流体出入口温度、流速和壁温,得到加磁处理与未加磁处理的污垢热阻变化趋势以及加磁处理的抑垢率。同时测量和分析了溶液电导率的变化,完成了高频电磁场的抑垢效果的客观评价,并取得了良好的预期结果。     

换热器因应结垢慢时变的控制系统重构分析

换热器作为化工过程中重要的热量传递设备,一般需要持续运行较长时间,期间由于结垢热阻的不断累积,换热器的换热效率将随时间逐渐下降,直至无法满足工艺要求。在实际的工业换热过程中,工艺人员通常会对换热器进行裕量设计,然而,当换热器需要运行的时间增长或者裕量设计不足时,面对不可避免的结垢增长,常用的流量控制策略在换热器运行末期的调节效果逐渐变差,旁路控制的方案无法实现全周期的持续控制。因此,本文首先在渐近增长模型的基础上建立了换热器结垢累积的积分渐近模型,该模型考虑了过程参数对结垢速率的影响;其次,以一个用于水循环的小面积换热器为例,分析了考虑结垢增长的条件下流量控制和旁路控制的调节效果;最后,针对结垢过程的慢时变和持续性等特点,设计了基于流量与旁路开度的控制系统重构方案。示例的运行结果表明,对于同样面积裕量有限的换热器,这一控制方案能延长其使用寿命,实现其全周期持续可控的目标。     

The effect of surface properties on CaSO4 scale formation during convective heat transfer and subcooled flow boiling

In this paper the effects of surface energy and surface roughness on the deposition of calcium sulphate during convective and subcooled flow boiling heat transfer to aqueous CaSO₄ solutions are studied. The surfaces of several test heaters have been treated by Ion Beam Implantation, Unbalanced Magnetron Sputtering, Mixed Sputtering and Plasma Arc Deposition to reduce surface energy. One heater was electropolished to reduce surface roughness and one heater was etched by an electrochemical method to increase surface roughness. Fouling runs with these heaters, and with an untreated surface as control, were carried out at different heat fluxes, flow velocities and salt concentrations. The results show that heat transfer surfaces with low surface energy experienced significantly reduced fouling, while electropolishing did not have a notable beneficial effect. The combined effect of reduced surface energy and flow velocity on fouling reduction is considerably stronger than previously reported for pool boiling.     

恒壁温时污垢对管内对流换热过程热力学性能影响的分析

基于热力学第一、二定律 ,在恒壁温工况下分析了污垢对管内对流换热过程热力学性能的影响 ;提出了反映污垢对管内对流换热过程热力学性能影响的指标———单位传热量的熵增率 ;讨论了管内流体Reynolds数(无污垢时 )和量纲为 1的入口换热温差等参数对单位传热量熵增率的影响 .研究结果表明 ,该指标不仅能反映污垢对管内传热过程的影响 ,而且能反映污垢对管内流动过程的影响 ,而由污垢层导热所引起的熵产在管内传热过程总的熵产中占有重要的地位     

Mathematical modelling of mixed salt precipitation during convective heat transfer and sub-cooled flow boiling

The main purpose of this investigation was to study the mechanisms of mixed salt crystallisation fouling on heat transfer surfaces during convective heat transfer and sub-cooled flow boiling conditions. In the present investigation, the effects of various operating parameters such as solution composition and hydrodynamics of the system, on crystallisation fouling of mixtures of calcium sulphate and calcium carbonate have been studied experimentally. After clarification of the effects of operating parameters on the deposition process, the results of the experiments were used to develop a mechanistic model for prediction of fouling resistances, caused by crystallisation of mixed salts, under convective heat transfer and sub-cooled flow boiling conditions. Model predictions were compared with the measured experimental data when calcium sulphate and calcium carbonate form deposits on the heat transfer surface simultaneously. Deviations ranging from 6% to 25% were observed which confirm the suitability of the model.     

复合改性表面抑制颗粒污垢积聚特性分析

换热设备颗粒污垢一般指悬浮在流体中的固体颗粒在换热面上的积聚。开发了一种Ni-P-TiO₂防垢型复合改性表面,并将之用于板式换热器抑制纳米MgO颗粒污垢在换热表面的积聚。基于搭建的板式换热器颗粒污垢热阻动态监测实验系统,研究了不同冷却水流速(0.1~0.3 m/s)、入口温度(30~40℃)及纳米MgO浓度(100~400 mg/L)对Ni-P-TiO₂复合改性换热表面抑垢特性的影响。结果表明,随着流速的增加,污垢热阻渐近值减小了27.85%~34.41%;随着冷却水入口温度的升高,污垢热阻渐近值减小了25.15%~39.14%;随着MgO颗粒浓度的增加,热阻渐近值减小了26.15%~45.36%。结合Ni-P-TiO₂复合改性表面的表面能分析了其表面的抑垢性能,发现制备的Ni-P-TiO₂复合改性表面的表面能与纳米MgO颗粒污垢层的表面能相接近,符合Zhao提出的“最优表面能”抑垢理论。与常规板式换热器不锈钢表面相比,Ni-P-TiO₂复合改性表面不仅抑制了颗粒污垢的积聚,还降低了颗粒污垢的固着强度,使得积聚其上的颗粒污垢更容易被剥离换热表面,实现了换热表面持久高效抑垢。     

汽-水换热器内流体诱导振动强化传热试验

提出利用换热器内流体诱导振动实现强化传热的方法 .在利用传热表面振动提高对流换热系数的同时 ,利用振动变形减少积垢 ,降低污垢热阻 ,实现了复合强化传热 .对管内外流体流动诱导弹性管束的振动特性、强化传热特性和污垢特性进行了试验研究     

Fouling mitigation in the repeated batch runs of electrodialysis with humate foulant

Since membrane fouling is one of the important considerations in electrodialysis, many approaches have been considered in order to minimize fouling of the process. In this study, square wave powers having pulsing effects were employed to investigate the effects of the frequencies on the fouling mitigation during fouling experiments of humate, forming a loosely packed fouling layer on the anion exchange membrane surface. It was shown that a pulsing electric field with determined optimal frequency reduced the fouling potential of an already fouled system in repeated batch runs at a significant level. It was suggested through electrodialysis experiments of humate that the pulsation of the electric field affected the electromigration of the charged particles deposited in the fouling layer, thus decreasing fouling potentials.     

Model for seawater fouling and effects of temperature,flow velocity and surface free energy on seawater fouling☆

A kinetic model was proposed to predict the seawater fouling process in the seawater heat exchangers.The new model adopted an expression combining depositional and removal behaviors for seawater fouling based on the Kern–Seaton model.The present model parameters include the integrated kinetic rate of deposition(k d)and the integrated kinetic rate of removal(k r),which have clear physical signi ficance.A seawater-fouling monitoring device was established to validate the model.The experimental data were well fitted to the model,and the parameters were obtained in different conditions.SEM and EDX analyses were performed after the experiments,and the results show that the main components of seawater fouling are magnesium hydroxide and aluminum hydroxide.The effects of surface temperature,flow velocity and surface free energy were assessed by the model and the experimental data.The results indicate that the seawater fouling becomes aggravated as the surface temperature increased in a certain range,and the seawater fouling resistance reduced as the flow velocity of seawater increased.Furthermore,the effect of the surface free energy of metals was analyzed,showing that the lower surface free energy mitigates the seawater fouling accumulation.     

Heat transfer coefficient in a high pressure tubular reactor for ethylene polymerization

Heat transfer in tubular reactors for the high pressure polymerization of ethylene is very complex, since these tubular reactors are usually divided into several zones that exhibit different flow patterns and critical fouling behavior. The correct estimation of the overall heat transfer coefficient along the reactor axial distance is a major issue when assessing the predictive capabilities of a mathematical model for the process. In general, previous models employed either constant heat transfer coefficients or the usual correlations for the Nusselt number. Neither of these two approaches is accurate enough to allow a correct prediction of the reactor behavior with respect to temperature profiles and product molecular properties. The present work performs a more comprehensive estimation of the heat transfer coefficient in these reactors. At a first stage the overall heat transfer coefficients were estimated by using approapriate energy balances and a good set of experimental data. Then, a predictive model was proposed for the overall heat transfer coefficient. All flow regimes, as well as fouling effects, were taken into account, and the parameter estimation was based on temperature profiles obtained from an industrial reactor. The temperature profiles, conversions, pressures and molecular properties calculated by means of the experimentally fitted heat transfer coefficients or with the predictive model showed good agreement with plant data.     

自然循环蒸发器往复螺旋流体动力清洗实验研究

针对蒸发器结垢严重及强制循环泵能耗高的问题,提出了一种用于自然循环蒸发器加热管内往复螺旋在线清洗技术,依靠气液两相流速度场的脉动实现工作螺旋轴向往复振动实现均匀防、除垢. 以水为实验介质,设计了6根加热管的常压蒸发实验台,用不同往复弹簧和工作螺旋组成的清洗装置进行了实验,并在优化参数下得到了工作螺旋轴向往复行程、循环流速与传热温差的关系. 结果表明,加热管规格为外径38 mm、壁厚2 mm、管长2 m的常压蒸发条件下,往复弹簧弹性系数K=7.0~8.0 N/m、工作螺旋螺距与管内径比为0.676~0.764且传热温差大于18℃时,系统循环流速不低于0.57 m/s,工作螺旋往复行程稳定大于一个螺距,满足均匀除垢需求.     

球凸板对磁场中导电流体自由表面流动的传热强化

在许多工业应用和能源工程的磁流体流动传热中,外部磁场抑制导电流体的湍流脉动,降低了其对流传热系数。基于涡流发生的球凸板是一种高效的强化换热手段,其主要特点是传热强度大、流动阻力小、综合传热性能高,本文数值研究了利用球凸板强化磁场中导电流体自由表面流动换热的性能。计算采用磁场作用下的修正湍流模型和诱导磁场方程,并利用标量输运方程的求解器对它们进行求解。结果表明,在中等Hartmann数(30～70)下,球凸板的换热增强因子达到1.3～2.3,而阻力损失仅为光滑平板的1.34～1.45倍。在获得较高强化传热效果的同时,球凸板的阻力损失增加相对较小,因而获得了较高的综合传热性能。     

Pool boiling fouling and corrosion properties on liquid‐phase‐deposition TiO2 coatings with copper substrate

Fouling on the heat transfer surfaces of industrial heat exchangers is an intractable problem, and several techniques have been suggested to inhibit fouling. Surface coatings are of such techniques by which the adhesion force between fouling and heat transfer surface can be reduced with low surface free energy thin films. In this article, liquid phase deposition was applied to coat titanium dioxide thin films on the red copper substrates with film thickness in micro‐ or nano‐meter scale. Coating thickness, contact angle, roughness, surface topography, and components were measured with X‐ray diffraction, contact angle analyzer, stylus roughmeter, scanning electron microscopy, and energy dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy, respectively. Surface free energy of coating layers was calculated based on the contact angle. Heat transfer and fouling characteristics in pool boiling of distilled water and calcium carbonate solution on coated surfaces were investigated. Heat transfer enhancement was observed on coated surfaces compared with untreated or polished surfaces due to the micro‐ and nano‐structured surfaces which may increase the number of nucleation sites. The nonfouling time on the coated surfaces is extended than that on the untreated or polished surfaces due to the reducing of the surface free energy of coated surfaces. Corrosion behavior of coated surfaces soaked in the corrosive media of hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide alkali, and sodium chloride salt solutions with high concentration at room temperature a few hours was also explored qualitatively. Anticorrosion results of the coated surfaces were obtained. The coatings resisted alkali corrosion within 7.2 × 10⁵ s, acidic corrosion within 3.6 × 10⁵ s and salt corrosion within 2.16 × 10⁶ s. The present work may open a new coating route to avoid fouling deposition and corrosion on the heat transfer surfaces of industry evaporators, which is very important for energy saving in the related industries. © 2010 American Institute of Chemical Engineers AIChE J, 2011     

板式换热器Ni-P-TiO2复合纳米镀层微生物污垢特性

换热器微生物污垢问题普遍存在于能源化工领域,污垢的聚集会导致设备的流动阻力、燃料消耗和维护成本支出大幅度增加。本文采用复合纳米镀层来抑制和减轻换热表面的微生物污垢的附着和沉积。首先采用化学镀的方式,在板式换热器的不锈钢316板上镀覆 Ni-P-TiO₂复合纳米镀层和对照性的Ni-P 镀层。基于板式换热器的微生物污垢在线监测实验系统,研究了镀覆Ni-P-TiO₂复合纳米镀层的板式换热器微生物污垢特性。结果表明,清洁状态下,镀覆两种镀层的板式换热器其摩擦系数（f）和Nusselt数（Nu）相较未镀覆板式换热器均略有增加;微生物污垢实验后,相比较未镀覆的板式换热器,镀覆Ni-P镀层的板式换热器污垢热阻减少了8.36%~23.07%,而镀覆Ni-P-TiO₂复合纳米镀层的板式换热器污垢热阻减少了16.6%~30.96%;在相同微生物污垢实验工况下,镀覆Ni-P-TiO₂复合纳米镀层的板式换热器的摩擦系数（f）相比Ni-P镀层的低2.54%~11.82%,但Nu却明显高于Ni-P镀层达8.47%~9.45%,并且污垢热阻明显小于Ni-P镀层达10.66%~18.18%,镀覆Ni-P-TiO₂复合纳米镀层的板式换热器展现了优异的强化传热性能和抑垢性能。     

Use of axial dispersion and plug flow models for determination of axial mixing and mass transfer coefficient in an l‐shaped pulsed packed extraction column

In this study, the volumetric overall mass transfer and phases axial mixing coefficients have been investigated in a pilot plant of an L‐shaped pulsed packed extraction column by using two liquid systems of toluene/acetone/water and n‐butyl/acetone/water. The mass transfer performance has been evaluated using two methods of axial dispersion and a plug flow model. The effect of the operational variables and physical properties, including the dispersed and continuous phases flow rates, pulsation intensity, and interfacial tension, on mass transfer and phases axial mixing coefficients have been considered. It has been found that the pulsation intensity and the continuous phase flow rate seriously affect the mass transfer coefficient, however, the dispersed phase flow rate has a weaker effect. Also, the axial mixing of a phase is strongly affected by the pulsation intensity and the flow rate of the phase itself and it is not affected by the second phase flow rate. Finally, new correlations are proposed to accurately predict the mass transfer and axial mixing coefficients.     

Theoretical analysis of laminar flow heat transfer in a flat-duct wall reactor

Conjugated heat transfer in steady state was studied, assuming the interfacial reaction to be instantaneous and the flow to be a fully-developed laminar condition. The thermal boundary condition at the outer surface of the duct wall is specified as the first kind or the third kind. Influences of the interfacial reaction, the conductance of the wall and the external convection on the heat transfer characteristics were found to be substantial through calculated numerical results of the interfacial temperature and the local Nusselt number. Cases with uniform interfacial heat source and without it were also examined under the third kind boundary condition.     

Investigation of Scale Formation in Heat Exchangers of Phosphoric Acid Evaporator Plants

The primary problem in concentrating phosphoric acid is due to fouling on the tube‐side of the heat exchangers of the evaporator units. Scaling on the heat transfer surfaces occurs because of high supersaturation of phosphoric acid liquor with respect to calcium sulphate. A review of the existing literature reveals that no information is available on heat transfer and on crystallization fouling of industrial phosphoric acid solutions. In this investigation, the solubility of different calcium sulphate types in phosphoric acid solution was studied and its dependency on acid concentration and temperature was investigated. A large number of fouling experiments were carried out in a side‐stream of a phosphoric acid plant at different flow velocities, surface temperatures and concentrations to determine the mechanisms, which control the deposition process. After identifying the effects of operational parameters on the deposition process, a model was developed for prediction of fouling resistances. The reaction of calcium sulphate crystallization followed a second order rate with respect to the supersaturation. The activation energy evaluated for the surface reaction of the deposit formation was found to be 57 kJ/mol. The predicted fouling resistances were compared with the experimental data. Quantitative and qualitative agreement between measured and predicted fouling rates is good.