A novel method to measure the porosity of porous materials

ABSTRACT

Porosity is the single most important feature of porous materials. On the basis of the research work, a new method to measure the porosity of porous materials is proposed in this paper. This method is a system of equations composed of six formulas, so it is called model equation method. It is not only applicable to space holder technique but also applicable to metal prepared by pure powder metallurgy. Compared with mass volume method and immersion medium method, our new method is more simple and efficient. More importantly, it can be used as a standard measure. This study provides a fundamental basis for the measurement of porosity in porous materials.     

Designing,processing and characterisation of titanium cylinders with graded porosity: An alternative to stress-shielding solutions

Bone resorption events and consequent failure of titanium implants are frequently related to stress-shielding problems, due to stiffness mismatch with respect to bone. This is a mechanical incompatibility problem, which is difficult to resolve because of the challenge of replacing highly anisotropic biomechanical systems, as is the case of dental implants. This work describes the designing, processing and characterisation of cylindrical titanium samples with a longitudinally graded porosity obtained by conventional powder-metallurgy techniques. The design concept used was biomimetic, based on the stiffness properties of the tissues to be in contact with titanium dental implants. Processing conditions were optimised in terms of different parameters: structural integrity, porosity and mechanical properties. The influence of sintering temperature was evaluated in search of optimum results under the above criteria. The behaviour of longitudinal porosity and Young’s modulus were consistent with the preliminary design concept from the original biomechanical system. Mechanical strength results were reasonably suitable for dental applications and they were favourably sensitive to increasing sintering temperature, due to a stronger adhesion between initial green layers of cylindrical samples. Results showed that it is possible to obtain a desired longitudinal gradient in Young’s modulus, as well as suitable yield strength values. The optimised processing described suggests that it is a plausible candidate for manufacturing dental implants with a good balance between reduced stress shielding and suitable mechanical strength, which encourages us to undertake further work along the same lines.     

An analytical approach for fracture and fatigue in functionally graded materials

The problem of brittle crack propagation and fatigue crack growth in functionally graded materials (FGMs) is addressed. The proposed analytical approach can be used to estimate the variation of the stress-intensity factor as a function of the crack length in FGMs. Furthermore, according to the Paris’ law, the fatigue life and the crack-tip velocity of crack propagation can be predicted in the case of fatigue crack growth. A comparison with numerical results obtained according to the Finite Element method will show the effectiveness of the proposed approach. Detailed examples are provided in the case of three-point bending beam problems with either a FGM interlayer, or a FGM external coating. A comparison is presented between two types of grading in the elastic modulus: a continuous linear variation in the FGM layer and a discrete approximation with a multi-layered beam and a constant Young’s modulus in each layer.     

Elastoplastic analysis of layered materials under thermal loading: Edge cracks parallel to the interface

The present study is a fracture mechanics analysis of a layered bimaterial with sharp interface having a stationary edge crack parallel to the interface and subjected to monotonic variation in temperature. Elastic and incremental elastoplastic analyses are carried out to evaluate the energy release rate. Closed-form solutions are derived, as functions of the thermomechanical properties and the geometry of the layers, for different critical temperatures at which distinct transitions occur in the deformation due to thermal loading. Finite-element simulations are used to examine the influence of variation in thermo- mechanical properties of the layers with temperature, as well as the effects of finite geometry. The evolution and path dependency of the J-integral with variation in temperature is examined. Detailed finite-element results are presented for the technologically important Ni-Al₂O₃ bimaterial system. The effect of crack propagation is considered. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Investigation on the Fe-based PM materials reinforced by In Situ synthesized TiC particulates

Atomized iron powder, carbonyl nickel powder, molybdenum powder, electrolytic copper powder, titanium powder and graphite powder were used as experimental materials; the titanium and graphite powders were added by an atomic ratio of Ti/C = 1:1 (the addition of Ti was 0 ～ 4 wt%) to Fe-2Ni-0.5Mo-2Cu-0.3C powder, and the iron-based powder metallurgy materials reinforced by in situ-synthesized TiC particulates were prepared by a powder metallurgy technique. The results show that the microstructures of sintered samples are mainly pearlite, ferrite and bainite. The amount of pearlite increases with the increase of Ti content, whereas the ferrite and bainite decrease. TiC particles sized 0.3 µm distribute mainly near the grain boundary of pearlite. The apparent hardness of sintered samples increases, while the sintered density and flexural strength decrease with the increase of Ti content. The fracture morphology of the sintered materials is brittle type.     

A two-phase composite materials approach to the workability of concrete

The present article is an attempt to establish basic composition-property relations for fresh concrete, using the two-phase composite materials approach and the law of plastic viscosity. Results of common practical tests of unit weight, slump test and Vebe test on systematic fresh concrete series, performed by the authors, are presented and are expressed through the following analytical models: the simple mixture rule for the unit weight: δ_c = δ_m + (δ_a − δ_m) V_a and the proposed plastic viscosity model for the workability tests: The slump test s_c = s_m The Vebe test T_m = T_m with good agreement. The indices m, a and c refer to the mortar, the aggregate, and the concrete, respectively, and V_a is the volume fraction of the coarse aggregate. The material constants M, k, and k′ depend on the characteristics of the mortar and the coarse aggregate phases. It is concluded that with the development of this analytical model a reasonable solution for the workability of fresh concrete has been obtained.     

Moisture influence on the resilient deformation behaviour of unbound granular materials

The influence of moisture on the resilient deformation properties of unbound granular materials was investigated based on repeated load triaxial tests. Results showed that the resilient modulus (M_R) decreased with increasing moisture for a relatively low number of load cycles (N) where the deformation behaviour was mostly resilient with a negligible amount of associated accumulated permanent deformation (PD). Modelling attempts on this behaviour were quite satisfactory. Furthermore, the M_R showed an increasing trend with increasing moisture, up to the optimum, when the N was relatively large with a significant amount of accumulated PD. Above the optimum, the M_R generally decreased. Further investigation suggested that moisture aided the post-compaction (PC) and possible particle rearrangement that resulted in the increased PD and increased M_R. The existing model did not work in this case indicating that the effect of PC on M_R should be considered in modelling.     

Low‐frequency assessment of the in situ acoustic absorption of materials in rooms: an inverse problem approach using evolutionary optimization

The in situ assessment of the acoustic absorption of materials is often a necessity. The need to cover the whole frequency range of interest for the building engineer has led the authors to an approach involving two frequency‐complementary measurement methods. This paper deals with the part dedicated to low frequencies. The measurement is defined here as a boundary inverse interior problem. A numerical model of the room under investigation, allowing for the computation of the pressure field in the volume, given impedance boundary conditions and a point source, is combined to a global optimization algorithm. The algorithm explores the set of possible boundary conditions in order to minimize the difference between the computed pressure values and the one observed at a few measurement points, leading to the determination of all the boundary conditions at a time. In practice, the finite element method (FEM) or the finite difference method (FDM) is used here to model the room and an Evolution Strategy as the optimization tool. After describing the ES operators, a numerical study is carried out on simulated measurements, both on problem‐ and algorithm‐specific parameters, in the case of an academic two‐dimensional room geometry. The method is then applied to a three‐dimensional room with promising results. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Analytical approach to the strain rate effect on the dynamic tensile strength of brittle materials

An explicit mathematical expression for the dynamic load-carrying capacity of brittle materials under dynamic tensile loads is derived based on a kind of structural-temporal failure criterion [1] and the one-dimensional longitudinal plane wave propagation model. It is shown that the dependence of the dynamic load-carrying capacity on the strain rate can be determined only by the static material parameters such as tensile strength, density, incubation time, critical failure length and constitutive constants, which verifies that the well known strain rate effect on material strength can be considered as an structural rather than material behavior, as pointed out by Cotsovos and Pavlovi? [2] recently. Moreover, it is found that, under constant strain rate, the dynamic load-carrying capacity depends also on the amplitudes of imposed boundary loads, which explains, to a significant extent, the scatter that characterizes the available experimental data. Furthermore, the derived expression can also be used as a foundation of theoretical analyses on other problems involving the strain rate effect such as dynamic size effect, dynamic failure of quasi-brittle materials and composites.     

On hypersingular surface integrals in the symmetric Galerkin boundary element method: application to heat conduction in exponentially graded materials

A symmetric Galerkin formulation and implementation for heat conduction in a three‐dimensional functionally graded material is presented. The Green's function of the graded problem, in which the thermal conductivity varies exponentially in one co‐ordinate, is used to develop a boundary‐only formulation without any domain discretization. The main task is the evaluation of hypersingular and singular integrals, which is carried out using a direct ‘limit to the boundary’ approach. However, due to complexity of the Green's function for graded materials, the usual direct limit procedures have to be modified, incorporating Taylor expansions to obtain expressions that can be integrated analytically. Several test examples are provided to verify the numerical implementation. The results of test calculations are in good agreement with exact solutions and corresponding finite element method simulations. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Analysis of a propagating crack in functionally graded materials with property variation angled to crack direction

The stress and displacement fields for a crack propagating in functionally graded materials (FGMs) with property variation angled to crack direction are obtained. The FGMs have a linear variation of shear modulus with a constant density and Poisson’s ratio. The solutions for higher order terms in the dynamic equilibriums are obtained by transforming the general differential equations to Laplace’s equations. Using the stress fields, the effects of the nonhomogeneity and the angled properties on stress components are investigated. In addition to, the contours of the constant maximum shear stress around the static and propagating crack tip are generated. The contours of the constant maximum shear stress around the static and propagating crack tip tilt toward the property gradation direction.     

The use of the Sawyer-Tower method and its modifications to measure the electrical parameters of ferroelectric materials

Modifications of the Sawyer-Tower method, based on a measurement of the impedance and Fourier transformations, are proposed. A functional and metrological analysis of the methods is presented, which enables the reliability of the measurements of the field dependences of the parameters of ferroelectric materials to be increased, which should find application in microelectronic and nanoelectronic products. __________ Translated from Izmeritel’naya Tekhnika, No. 10, pp. 54–58, October, 2007.     

透波层厚度对结构吸波材料吸收峰的影响

采用弓形法测试反射率,研究透波层的厚度对结构吸波复合材料吸收峰的影响。结果显示,在4~18 GHz范围内,厚度对其吸波性能具有显著影响:透波层厚度为0.95 mm时,结构吸波材料的吸收峰值最高,达-22.6 d B;其吸收峰值先随透波层厚度的增加而增强,而后逐渐减弱,透波层厚度对吸收峰值的影响可用二次多项式描述;吸收峰的位置随透波层的厚度增加向低频方向漂移,其漂移位移与透波层厚度线性相关,满足一次线性方程。     

A cross-entropy approach to the single row facility layout problem

The single row facility layout problem is to arrange a given number of facilities along a straight line so as to minimise the total cost associated with the interactions between the facilities. In this paper, a metaheuristic algorithm based on the cross-entropy method, incorporating a local search procedure and symmetry-breaking techniques, is developed to solve this problem. The proposed algorithm has been tested on some widely used benchmark instances. The computational results show that the proposed algorithm has found the optimal or the best solutions known so far for the instances of size with up to 100 facilities and is competitive with some existing algorithms.     

A multiparameter approach to the prediction of fatigue crack growth in metallic materials

A multiparameter approach is proposed for the characterization of fatigue crack growth in metallic materials. The model assesses the combined effects of identifiable multiple variables that can contribute to fatigue crack growth. Mathematical expressions are presented for the determination of fatigue crack growth rates, d a /d N , as functions of multiple variables, including stress intensity factor range, Δ K , stress ratio, R , crack closure stress intensity factor, K _cl , the maximum stress intensity factor K _max , nominal specimen thickness, t , frequency, Ω , and temperature, T . A generalized empirical methodology is proposed for the estimation of fatigue crack growth rates as a function of these variables. The validity of the methodology is then verified by making appropriate comparisons between predicted and measured fatigue crack growth data obtained from experiments on Ti–6Al–4V. The effects of stress ratio and specimen thickness on fatigue crack growth rates are then rationalized by crack closure considerations. The multiparameter model is also shown to provide a good fit to experimental data obtained for HY-80 steel, Inconel 718 polycrystal and Inconel 718 single crystal. Finally, the implications of the results are discussed for the prediction of fatigue crack growth and fatigue life.     

Classifying technology patents to identify trends: Applying a fuzzy-based clustering approach in the Turkish textile industry

Economic and technological advances have dramatically changed trends in capital investment. As a result, conventional businesses are at risk of being replaced with businesses that embrace new technology and trends. It is essential to identify and act on business opportunities as they appear within these new trends. This paper introduces an approach that uses patent count data to discover technology trends through a fuzzy-based clustering methodology. Technologies are classified into three types—trendy, classic, and dated—that are identified using K-means clustering. This methodology has been tested using textile patents retrieved from the on-line database of the Turkish Patent Institute. As a result, the most promising sub-sectors in the Turkish textile industry can be determined.     

Use of tomography to understand the influence of preconditioning on carbonation tests in cement-based materials

Recognition of the rising amount of atmospheric CO₂ has brought renewed interest in understanding the effects of carbonation on reinforced concrete performance. In laboratory testing, the specimens must be preconditioned to effectively study carbonation. This paper studied the influence of several preconditioning schemes on the carbonation profiles of cement paste specimens subjected to accelerated carbonation tests. The evolution of microstructure and moisture during carbonation were investigated accordingly. Bulk of the work was based on an extended X-ray attenuation method (XRAM), which relied on X-ray computed tomography (CT). A novel method was introduced to evaluate the extent of damage due to drying. Based on extent of damage, the paper recommends standard-cured specimens for carbonation tests as compared to water-cured specimens. Also, when comparing between oven drying and mass balancing, the latter was shown to be more suitable, as the inner moisture distribution becomes more uniform after this drying protocol, and less fluctuation of humidity will occur during carbonation.     

On the capability of micromechanics models to capture the auxetic behavior of fibers/particles reinforced composite materials

This work investigates the possibility to predict the auxetic behavior of composites consisting of non-auxetic phases by means of micromechanical models based on Eshelby’s inclusion concept. Two specific microstructures have been considered: (i) the three-layered hollow-cored fibers-reinforced composite and (ii) a microstructure imitating the re-entrant honeycomb micro-architecture. The micromechanical analysis is based on kinematic integral equations as a formal solution of the inhomogeneous material problem. The interaction tensors between the inhomogeneities are computed thanks to the Fourier’s transform. The material anisotropy due to the morphological and topological textures of the inhomogeneities was taken into account thanks to the multi-site approximation of these tensors. In both cases, the numerical results show that auxetic behavior cannot be captured by such models at least in the case of elastic and isotropic phases. This conclusion is supported by corresponding finite element investigations of the second microstructure that indicate that auxetic behavior can be recovered by introducing joints between inclusions. Otherwise, favorable issues are only expected with auxetic components.