Updating Situation Models.

The authors examined how situation models are updated during text comprehension. If comprehenders keep track of the evolving situation, they should update their models such that the most current information, the here and now, is more available than outdated information. Contrary to this updating hypothesis, E. J. O'Brien, M. L. Rizzella, J. E. Albrecht, and J. G. Halleran (1998) obtained results suggesting that outdated or incorrect information may still influence the comprehension process. The authors of the current study demonstrate that the nature of E. J. O'Brien et al.'s materials were the likely cause of this pattern of results. Hence, the current authors constructed materials that circumvent identified confounds and in a reading-time experiment obtained evidence supporting the here-and-now hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Accessibility of outdated information.

In 2 previous studies (O'Brien, Rizzella, Albrecht, & Halleran, 1998; Zwaan & Madden, 2004), researchers have provided conflicting accounts about whether outdated information continues to influence the comprehension of subsequent text. The current set of experiments was designed to explore further the impact of outdated information on comprehension. First, we examined factors that may have contributed to Zwaan and Madden's (2004) finding that outdated information did not influence comprehension. Experiments 1a and 1b demonstrated that when Zwaan and Madden's target sentences were rewritten to move the targeted anaphor away from the end of the sentence, the impact of outdated information emerged with their materials. With a new set of materials, Experiment 2 demonstrated that outdated information continued to disrupt comprehension, even when the updating information created an irreversible change-in-state of a primary object in the story. The results of all 3 experiments are consistent with a passive reactivation process in which outdated information can influence comprehension processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Elaborative inferencing as an active or passive process.

E. J. O'Brien et al (see record 1988-31689-001) reported that readers generated elaborative inferences only when a text contained characteristics that virtually eliminated the possibility of an inference being disconfirmed. We reanalyzed O'Brien's data and also conducted an experiment in which we varied (a) whether or not there was an anaphoric relation between a target word and its prior mention in the text and (b) the explicitness of the prior mention. Two refinements to O'Brien et al's conclusions are offered. First, the two text characteristics they manipulated (a strong biasing context or a demand sentence) may have produced different types of elaborative inferencing. We argue that a biasing context results in a passive form of elaborative inferencing, involving setting up a context of interpretation, whereas the presence of a demand sentence invites the reader to actively predict a subsequent expression. Second, clear evidence for either type of inference will be apparent only with truly anaphoric materials. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Job demands and worker health: Three-dimensional reexamination of the relationship between person€nvironment fit and strain.

The most influential study of the person–environment (P–E) fit approach to stress was conducted by J. R. French et al (1982). Unfortunately, this study operationalized fit using various transformations of difference scores, thereby introducing numerous substantive and methodological problems. In the present study, the authors reanalyze data from French et al, using a procedure described by J. R. Edwards (in press) that avoids problems with difference scores and captures the underlying 3-dimensional relationship between environment, person, and strain. Results resolve ambiguities in the French et al findings and identify relationships between environment, person, and strain that, although consistent with P–E fit theory, cannot be adequately represented by fit measures such as those used by French et al. Implications for P–E fit research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of context in accessing distant information during reading.

In 3 experiments, the authors investigated factors that influence accessibility of backgrounded goal information. Participants read texts consisting of 2 episodes. In the 1st episode, the goal was satisfied or unsatisfied. Following a statement of goal satisfaction or goal postponement, there was a 2nd unrelated episode. After completion of the 2nd episode, target sentences were presented that were consistent with the 2nd episode but were inconsistent with completion of the earlier unsatisfied goal. Participants noticed the inconsistency only when the conflicting information was separated by a few sentences or when the context of the goal had been reinstated. The results are consistent with the resonance model described by J. E. Albrecht and E. J. O'Brien (see record 1994-00399-001) and by J. L. Myers, E. J. O'Brien, J. E. Albrecht, and R. A. Mason (see record 1995-39562-001). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Am I the fifth horseman of the apocalypse? Comment on Galassi, Crace, Martin, James, and Wallace (1992) and comments on research concerning expectations about counseling.

The criticisms by J. P. Galassi et al (see record 1992-17938-001) of H. E. Tinsley and B. L. Benton (1978) and the Expectations About Counseling instrument are shown to be unfounded, problems with the terminology of Galassi et al are discussed, and the technical adequacy and findings of Galassi et al are analyzed. Problems that have occurred frequently in research on expectations about counseling are attributed to lack of programmatic research, failure to critically analyze existing literature, and use of instruments designed for a single study. The devotion of too much attention to "let's change a word" and "let's change a demographic variable" research is criticized. More effort is called for (1) to identify and measure theoretically relevant expectations, (2) to examine the relations between expectations and related constructs, (3) to determine how expectations can be modified, and (4) to investigate the relation of expectations to aspects of the counseling process and outcome. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Using cross-modal lexical decision tasks to investigate sentence processing.

Recent investigations of sentence processing have used the cross-modal lexical decision task to show that the antecedent of a phonologically empty noun phrase (specifically, WH-trace) is reactivated at the trace position. G. McKoon et al (see record 1995-04309-001) claimed that (1) a design feature concerning the choice of related and unrelated targets is a possible confound in this work and (2) the conclusions drawn from this previous research are therefore called into question. These claims are considered in light of both the McKoon et al experimental findings and the results of the J. L. Nicol et al experiments in which linguistic materials are tested. Nicol et al argue that their results may be due to the nature of their materials, and that a follow-up experiment reported by McKoon and R. Ratcliff (see record 1995-04308-001) used a technique that is not comparable to the cross-modal lexical decision task. It is concluded that current evidence supports the claim that structural information is used during on-line sentence processing and that the cross-modal technique is sensitive to this. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What does it mean to forget child sexual abuse? A reply to Loftus, Garry, and Feldman (1994).

This reply to the comment article of E. Loftus, M. Garry, and J . Feldman (1994) focuses primarily on responding to major points raised by these authors. E. Loftus et al. agreed with the conclusion that the best scientific evidence shows that people can and do forget child sexual abuse. The present reply elaborates on this. Apparently, forgetting can take place even when the abuse occurred when the child was older, had experienced dramatic events surrounding the abuse, or had suffered repeated molestation. It is argued here that research suggests that memory of child sexual abuse may be influenced by more than the "simple forgetting" that E. Loftus et al. suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Updating a situation model: a memory-based text processing view

Previous research (J. E. Albrecht & E. J. O'Brien, 1993) demonstrated that readers were aware of an inconsistency between an earlier described characteristic of a protagonist and a subsequent target action carried out by the protagonist. In a series of 5 experiments, a qualification was added to the described characteristic that restricted the conditions under which the characteristic was operative. According to the here-and-now view of mapping, readers should use this qualification to maintain a fully updated model of the protagonist in active memory and should not experience comprehension difficulty when reading the target action. In contrast, according to the memory-based text processing view, the qualification would not be part of the active discourse model. Instead, it would be reactivated when the target action was read. Thus, readers should still experience comprehension difficulty. Results of all 5 experiments were consistent with the memory-based text processing view.     

"Do sex-related differences in spatial abilities exist? A multilevel critique with new date": Comment on Caplan, MacPherson, and Tobin.

Suggests that the article by P. J. Caplan et al (see record 1986-10956-001) about sex-related differences in spatial ability is outdated and inadequate. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Why models rather than rules give a better account of propositional reasoning: A reply to Bonatti and to O'Brien, Braine, and Yang.

D. P. O'Brien et al (see record 1995-08272-001) argue that the mental model theory of propositional reasoning is easy to refute, and they report 3 experiments that they believe falsify the theory. In contrast, L. Bonatti (see record 1995-08253-001) argues that the model theory is too flexible to be falsified. It is shown that the experiments by O'Brien et al do not refute the model theory and that Bonatti's claims are ill founded. Formal rule theories of propositional reasoning have 3 major weaknesses in comparison with the model theory: (1) They have no decision procedure; (2) they lack predictive power, providing no account of several robust phenomena (e.g., erroneous conclusions tend to be consistent with the premises); and (3) as a class of theories, they are difficult to refute experimentally. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correction to Michael et al. (2011).

Reports an error in "Rebuttal re: "Confirmatory bias and the persistent influence of discredited data in interpreting the stress-cancer link: Commentary on Michael et al. (2009)"" by Yvonne L. Michael, Nichole E. Carlson, Deborah J. Bowen and Cheryl Ritenbaugh (Health Psychology, 2011[May], Vol 30[3], 375-376). The letter was missing the doi. The correct doi is 10.1037/a0022737. The online version of this article has been corrected. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2011-09497-017.) Responds to the comments by J. C. Coyne and C. Johansen (see record 2011-09497-016) on the current author's original article, "Influence of stressors on breast cancer incidence in the Women's Health Initiative" (see record 2009-03297-001). Coyne and Johansen (2011) took issue with the study conducted by the current authors' group (Michael et al., 2009), which analyzed the interaction between stressful life events and social support on breast cancer risk among 83,334 postmenopausal women enrolled in the Women’s Health Initiative (WHI). While the current authors agree with the Coyne and Johansen that too often null results are difficult to publish due to confirmatory bias that privileges results that support an alternative hypothesis, they strongly disagree with the assertion that their group selectively reported findings, inaccurately reported findings, or provided selective and uncritical reference to the existing literature. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Finding relations between input and outcome in language acquisition.

J. N. Bohannon, R. J. Padgett, K. E. Nelson, and M. Mark (see record 199601760-018) raised numerous points of disagreement with the analyses of J. L. Morgan, K. Bonamo, and L. L. Travis (see record 1995-24603-001) concerning children's use of parental recasts, responses potentially providing negative evidence. Claiming to show that the bivariate time-series analyses used by Morgan et al. were inherently flawed, Bohannon et al. argued that training studies offer a preferable means for examining contributions of language input. In this article, multiple weaknesses of training studies are noted; at best, such studies may yield information on the sufficiency of aspects of language input but can yield none on their necessity. The failure of Bohannon et al.'s time-series analyses to distinguish among varying models of recast function is shown to be attributable to confounding of parameters and idiosyncratic assumptions adopted in generating simulated data from these models. Contrary to Bohannon et al.'s assertions, bivariate time-series analyses of observational data may provide invaluable tools for discerning signs and magnitudes of relations among variables in language development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Integrating sex and gender into school psychology.

Discusses the psychology of sex and gender in terms of issues and problems raised by J. L. Alpert et al, J. C. Conoley and K. Welch, and E. Jacobs and R. H. Meltzer (see PA, Vol 75:18336; 18338; and 16764, respectively). Discussion focuses on sex-related differences in the light of findings about the multiple roles of women in school psychology; the finding of behaviors that are often considered status- and gender-inconsistent for women in school psychology; and concerns raised by women's developmental needs and multiple roles. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does working memory load lead to greater impulsivity? Commentary on Hinson, Jameson, and Whitney (2003).

Previous research by J. M. Hinson, T. L. Jameson, and P. Whitney (2003; see record 2003-02055-011) demonstrated that a secondary task in a delayed discounting paradigm increased subjects' preference for the immediate reward. J. M. Hinson et al. interpreted their findings as evidence that working memory load results in greater impulsivity. The present authors conducted a reanalysis of the data from J. M. Hinson et al.'s Experiment 1 at the individual-subject level. Difference scores were calculated by subtracting the digit memory load condition from the control condition for k (discounting parameter) and a measure of "erroneous" responses. The results indicated that the secondary task increased random responding, which in turn can account for the increased mean estimates of k. Thus, the data do not support the claim that cognitive load affects impulsivity per se. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression and the search for negative evaluations: More evidence of the role of self-verification strivings.

W. B. Swann et al (see record 1992-27469-001) suggested that depressed and dysphoric persons verify their self-conceptions by seeking rather negative appraisals. J. M. Hooley and J. E. Richters (see record 1992-27439-001) and L. B. Alloy and A. J. Lipman (see record 1992-27420-001) have worried that (1) idiosyncratic features of the Swann et al participants and design may have produced their effects and (2) Swann et al presented no evidence that self-verification strivings are motivated. The authors address these issues empirically. Study 1 showed that 20 dysphoric participants preferred interacting with a person who appraised them unfavorably over participating in another study, in comparison with 30 nondysphorics. Study 2 revealed that 26 dysphoric persons responded to feedback that challenged their negative self-view by working to reaffirm their low self-esteem, in comparison with 47 nondysphorics. These findings support the notion that at some level depressed and dysphoric persons want rather negative appraisals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Source of data as a factor in assessing symptoms of hyperkinesis.

The lack of agreement between teachers and parents in assessing the symptoms of hyperkinesis in children has been demonstrated in a study by J. E. Langhorne et al (see record 1976-22537-001). P. G. Zukow et al (see record 1979-05204-001) have recently criticized that investigation on several methodological points. In response to the criticisms of Zukow et al, the results of a separate analysis of the data of Langhorne et al that corroborates their original findings are presented. In this study, 127 hyperkinetic children were rated on home and school behavior scales by parents and teachers. Essentially no agreement between parents and teachers was found in ratings of 3 behaviors. (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An immunocytochemical study of the FMRFamide neuropeptide gene products in Drosophila

We have mapped protein expression of the FMRFamide neuropeptide gene in Drosophila with polyclonal antisera against three small peptides whose sequences were derived from the Drosophila proFMRFamide precursor. One antiserum was affinity-purified and extensively characterized. The enriched antibodies labeled 15-21 bilaterally symmetric pairs of neurons in a pattern that corresponded very closely to the pattern of in situ hybridization that was determined previously (Schneider et al. [1991] J. Comp. Neurol. 304:608-622; O'Brien et al. [1991] J. Comp. Neurol. 304:623-638). The other antisera produced complementary results. These findings suggest that the antisera specifically label cells that express the FMRFamide gene. In larvae we consistently observed strong staining in identified interneurons and neuroendocrine cells, and moderate to weak staining in neurons of unknown function. The adult pattern of expression included both larval neurons whose immunoreactivity persisted through metamorphosis and adult-specific neurons. During metamorphosis, we observed transient staining in a small number of neurons and in specific neuropil regions that included the central body, the protocerebral bridge, and the optic ganglia. Based on these morphological features, we suggest that the FMRFamide-like neuropeptides in Drosophila play a number of functional roles, perhaps affecting both physiological and developmental phenomena. Such roles include general modulation throughout all post-embryonic stages, via the blood, and also more stage- and region-specific modulation within the CNS.     

Neglected aspects and unsupported claims.

Comments on the article by M. E. Kite et al (see record 2001-10045-002), which summarized the findings and recommendations of the Task Force on the Status of Women in Academe. The present authors contend that while Kite et al documented the differences in the activities of men and women in academia, it is not clear that "inequalities persist." Kite et al interpreted the observed differences in outcomes between men and women as self-evident indicators of remaining bias and discrimination. The present authors warn of two problems with this interpretation. First, Kite et al neglected important variables that suggest alternative interpretations of these differences. Second, the authors made unsupported claims about the existence of bias and discrimination against women. Here the present authors document specific cases of these errors in reasoning. In conclusion, observed differences between men and women might be partly a reflection of other (neglected) personological variables on which the sexes overlap considerably but differ on average. Just as differential outcomes do not imply differential opportunities, equal opportunities do not necessarily produce equal outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Internal and external components of emotionality in restrained and unrestrained eaters.

Compared the affective responsiveness of dieters and nondieters. 47 male college students rated the emotional impact of projected slides in a situation similar to that used by P. Pliner et al (see record 1974-27296-001) with obese and normal Ss. The present findings show that dieters, like the obese, were more extreme emotional responders. When Ss were given an internal source of arousal (i.e., caffeine), nondieters became more emotional and dieters became less emotional. These results are discussed in terms of S. Schachter's (1971) "externality" model of obesity and S. Schachter and J. E. Singer's "external–internal" theory of emotion. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)