Metacognitive control and the spacing effect.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 36(3) of Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition (see record 2010-08037-021). In the article “Metacognitive Control and the Spacing Effect,” by Lisa K. Son (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 2010, Vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 255–262), lenient scores were reported instead of strict scores in two Performance Data sections of the text. The strict scores were correctly used in the analyses and figures. On page 259, the data corrections are as follows: The mean level of performance for items that were massed was 17.3 rather than 27.48, whereas that of spaced items was 30.6 rather than 34.02. The mean performance for those items in which a spacing schedule was imposed was 22.6 rather than 28.90, and the mean for the massed items was 21.9 rather than 27.48. On page 260, the data corrections are as follows: The mean for the massed items was 5.0 rather than 10.3; for spaced items, the mean was 29.3 rather than 36.2. Children using the forced spacing strategy had a mean performance of 11.7 rather than 20.7. This mean score was still almost double that of the forcibly massed items, M = 5.2 rather than 11.1.] This study investigates whether the use of a spacing strategy absolutely improves final performance, even when the learner had chosen, metacognitively, to mass. After making judgments of learning, adult and child participants chose to mass or space their study of word pairs. However, 1/3 of their choices were dishonored. That is, they were forced to mass after having chosen to space and forced to space after having chosen to mass. Results showed that the spacing effect obtained for both adults and children when choices were honored. However, using a spacing strategy when it was in disagreement with the participant’s own choice, or forced, did not enhance performance for the adults (Experiment 1). And although performance was enhanced for the children (beyond massing strategies), it was not as good as when the spacing decisions were self-chosen (Experiment 2). The data suggest that although spacing is an effective strategy for learning, it is not universal, particularly when the strategy is not chosen by the learner. In short, metacognitive control is often crucial and should be honored. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Metacognitive control and spaced practice: Clarifying what people do and why.

What do learners do when they control whether to engage in massed or spaced practice? According to theories by Son (2004) and by Metcalfe and Kornell (2005), the tendency for learners to choose spaced practice over massed practice should decline as item difficulty becomes greater. Support originally was obtained when pairs containing unfamiliar words were presented briefly for study, but subsequent research has suggested that, under these conditions, learners had difficulty initially encoding the members of the to-be-learned pairs. In Experiments 1 and 2, we failed to support the previously mentioned prediction in conditions in which the difficulty of learning was not correlated with the difficulty of initially encoding the pair members. Learners' relative preference for spaced practice increased, rather than decreased, with greater item difficulty, consistent with either a discrepancy-reduction-like account or an agenda-based-regulation account. In Experiment 3, we independently varied item difficulty and the point value that items were worth on the final test. Learners' relative preference for spaced practice was greater for high- than for low-value items but was unaffected by item difficulty. These results are more consistent with an agenda-based-regulation account than with a discrepancy-reduction account. More generally, learners' choices appear to be strategic and to reflect theory-based decisions, suggesting some level of appreciation for the relative benefits of massed versus spaced practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning from feedback: Spacing and the delay–retention effect.

Most modern research on the effects of feedback during learning has assumed that feedback is an error correction mechanism. Recent studies of feedback-timing effects have suggested that feedback might also strengthen initially correct responses. In an experiment involving cued recall of trivia facts, we directly tested several theories of feedback-timing effects and also examined the effects of restudy and retest trials following immediate and delayed feedback. Results were not consistent with theories assuming that the only function of feedback is to correct initial errors but instead supported a theoretical account assuming that delaying feedback strengthens initially correct responses due to the spacing of encoding opportunities: Delaying feedback increased the probability of correct response perseveration on the final retention test but had minimal effects on error correction or error perseveration probabilities. In a 2nd experiment, the effects of varying the lags between study, test, and feedback trials during learning provided further support for the spacing hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correction to Son (2010).

Reports an error in "Metacognitive control and the spacing effect" by Lisa K. Son (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 2010[Jan], Vol 36[1], 255-262). In the article “Metacognitive Control and the Spacing Effect,” by Lisa K. Son (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 2010, Vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 255–262), lenient scores were reported instead of strict scores in two Performance Data sections of the text. The strict scores were correctly used in the analyses and figures. On page 259, the data corrections are as follows: The mean level of performance for items that were massed was 17.3 rather than 27.48, whereas that of spaced items was 30.6 rather than 34.02. The mean performance for those items in which a spacing schedule was imposed was 22.6 rather than 28.90, and the mean for the massed items was 21.9 rather than 27.48. On page 260, the data corrections are as follows: The mean for the massed items was 5.0 rather than 10.3; for spaced items, the mean was 29.3 rather than 36.2. Children using the forced spacing strategy had a mean performance of 11.7 rather than 20.7. This mean score was still almost double that of the forcibly massed items, M = 5.2 rather than 11.1. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2009-24668-018.) This study investigates whether the use of a spacing strategy absolutely improves final performance, even when the learner had chosen, metacognitively, to mass. After making judgments of learning, adult and child participants chose to mass or space their study of word pairs. However, 1/3 of their choices were dishonored. That is, they were forced to mass after having chosen to space and forced to space after having chosen to mass. Results showed that the spacing effect obtained for both adults and children when choices were honored. However, using a spacing strategy when it was in disagreement with the participant’s own choice, or forced, did not enhance performance for the adults (Experiment 1). And although performance was enhanced for the children (beyond massing strategies), it was not as good as when the spacing decisions were self-chosen (Experiment 2). The data suggest that although spacing is an effective strategy for learning, it is not universal, particularly when the strategy is not chosen by the learner. In short, metacognitive control is often crucial and should be honored. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Metacognitive control over the distribution of practice: When is spacing preferred?

The authors clarify the source of a conflict between previous findings related to metacognitive control over the distribution of practice. In a study by L. Son (2004), learners were initially presented pairs of Graduate Record Examination (GRE) vocabulary words and their common synonyms for 1 s, after which they chose to study the pair again immediately (massed practice), later (spaced practice), or not at all (done). Learners chose spaced practice less as pair difficulty increased. A. S. Benjamin and R. D. Bird (2006), using different materials and procedures and a longer presentation duration (5 s), concluded just the opposite. The authors adopted Son’s materials and procedures and replicated her findings with a 1-s stimulus duration. However, the declining choice of spacing as item difficulty increased largely reflected learners’ failure to fully perceive items with brief presentations. With longer presentations, ensuring full perception, the choice of spaced practice increased with greater pair difficulty, in agreement with Benjamin and Bird. Theoretical implications are discussed in the context of discrepancy-reduction and proximal-learning perspectives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Metacognitive control and strategy selection: Deciding to practice retrieval during learning.

Retrieval practice is a potent technique for enhancing learning, but how often do students practice retrieval when they regulate their own learning? In 4 experiments the subjects learned foreign-language items across multiple study and test periods. When items were assigned to be repeatedly tested, repeatedly studied, or removed after they were recalled, repeated retrieval produced powerful effects on learning and retention. However, when subjects were given control over their own learning and could choose to test, study, or remove items, many subjects chose to remove items rather than practice retrieval, leading to poor retention. In addition, when tests were inserted in the learning phase, attempting retrieval improved learning by enhancing subsequent encoding during study. But when students were given control over their learning they did not attempt retrieval as early or as often as they should to promote the best learning. The experiments identify a compelling metacognitive illusion that occurs during self-regulated learning: Once students can recall an item they tend to believe they have “learned” it. This leads students to terminate practice rather than practice retrieval, a strategy choice that ultimately results in poor retention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

PC轧机板形板凸度控制策略

 根据PC轧机的结构特点,用三维差分法分析金属塑性变形,用影响函数法分析辊系弹性变形,建立PC轧机板形板凸度控制模型。对PC轧机轧制过程进行仿真研究,分析其工作辊弯辊力和交叉角控制特性,进而给出相应的控制策略。研究结果表明：在板形控制过程中,PC轧机交叉角具有很强的板形板凸度控制能力,而工作辊弯辊对辊间压力分布影响很大。通过两者合理的设定与分配,可以使辊间压力分布均匀,板形控制效果更为良好。     

Metacognitive regulation of text learning: On screen versus on paper.

Despite immense technological advances, learners still prefer studying text from printed hardcopy rather than from computer screens. Subjective and objective differences between on-screen and on-paper learning were examined in terms of a set of cognitive and metacognitive components, comprising a Metacognitive Learning Regulation Profile (MLRP) for each study media. Participants studied expository texts of 1000–1200 words in one of the two media and for each text they provided metacognitive prediction-of-performance judgments with respect to a subsequent multiple-choice test. Under fixed study time (Experiment 1), test performance did not differ between the two media, but when study time was self-regulated (Experiment 2) worse performance was observed on screen than on paper. The results suggest that the primary differences between the two study media are not cognitive but rather metacognitive—less accurate prediction of performance and more erratic study-time regulation on screen than on paper. More generally, this study highlights the contribution of metacognitive regulatory processes to learning and demonstrates the potential of the MLRP methodology for revealing the source of subjective and objective differences in study performance among study conditions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spacing effects in memory: Evidence for a two-process account.

Memory for repeated items on a list improves as a function of the spacing between repetitions. It is shown that spacing effects are eliminated in relative frequency discrimination, absolute frequency estimation, and recognition when items are learned incidentally. Spacing effects in free recall are unaffected by intentionality of learning. The results suggest that spacing effects in tasks in which experimenter-supplied retrieval cues are available are due to a rehearsal strategy that allots fewer rehearsals to items repeated in massed fashion. Spacing effects in free recall are due to a separate process resulting from study-phase retrieval of repeated items. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The interplay between value and relatedness as bases for metacognitive monitoring and control: Evidence for agenda-based monitoring.

Two experiments are reported examining how value and relatedness interact to influence metacognitive monitoring and control processes. Participants studied unrelated and related word pairs, each accompanied by point values denoting how important the items were to remember. These values were presented either before or after each pair in a between-subjects design, and participants made item-by-item judgments of learning (JOLs) predicting the likelihood that each item would be remembered later. Results from Experiment 1 showed that participants used value and relatedness as cues to inform their JOLs. Interestingly, JOLs increased as a function of value even in the after condition in which value had no impact on cued recall. Participants in Experiment 2 were permitted to control study time for each item. Results showed that value and relatedness were simultaneously considered when allocating study time. These results support a cue-weighting process in which JOLs and study time allocation are based on multiple cues, which may or may not be predictive of future memory performance, and complements the agenda-based regulation model of study time (Ariel, Dunlosky, & Bailey, 2009) by providing evidence for agenda-based monitoring. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Understanding procrastination from a self-regulated learning perspective.

Academic procrastination includes failing to perform an activity within the desired time frame or postponing until the last minute activities one ultimately intends to complete. As such, high levels of procrastination appear inconsistent with the behaviors typically attributed to self-regulated learners, However, research exploring the relation between these 2 constructs is lacking. Two studies (N = 168 and N = 152) examining procrastination and its relation to several key components of self-regulated learning using self-report surveys are reported here. Results indicate that procrastination was related to college students' self-efficacy and work-avoidant goal orientation and, to a lesser extent, their use of metacognitive strategies. Findings are discussed with regard to prior research on self-regulated learning and procrastination and to future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory predictions are influenced by perceptual information: Evidence for metacognitive illusions.

Although perceptual information is utilized to judge size or depth, little work has investigated whether such information is used to make memory predictions. The present study examined how the font size of to-be-remembered words influences predicted memory performance. Participants studied words for a free-recall test that varied in font size and made judgments of learning (JOLs) for each item. JOLs were influenced by font size, as larger font sizes were given higher JOLs, whereas little relationship was evident between font size and recall. The effect was modified when other, more valid, sources of information (e.g., associative strength) were available when JOLs were made and persisted despite experience with multiple study-test sessions, use of a forgetting scale to assess predictions, and explicit warning of participants that font size has little effect on memory performance. When ease of reading was manipulated, such that large font size words were made less fluent, the effect was eliminated. Thus, highly accessible perceptual cues can strongly influence JOLs, likely via encoding fluency, and this effect can lead to metacognitive illusions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

CVC四辊冷轧机板形控制策略

研究了宽带冷轧机的板形控制策略理论问题以及CVC四辊冷带轧机建立合理的板形控制策略的一般方法,在此基础上,以宝钢冷连轧机的第五机架为对象,建立了一套适用的板形控制策略模型。     

The intricate relationships between monitoring and control in metacognition: Lessons for the cause-and-effect relation between subjective experience and behavior.

Do we run away because we are frightened, or are we frightened because we run away? The authors address this issue with respect to the relation between metacognitive monitoring and metacognitive control. When self-regulation is goal driven, monitoring effects control processes so that increased processing effort should enhance feelings of competence and feelings of knowing. In contrast, when self-regulation is data driven, such feelings may be based themselves on the feedback from control processes, in which case they should decrease with increasing effort. Evidence for both monitoring-based control and control-based monitoring occurring even in the same situation is presented. The results are discussed with regard to the issue of the cause-and-effect relation between subjective experience and behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spaced retrieval: Absolute spacing enhances learning regardless of relative spacing.

Repeated retrieval enhances long-term retention, and spaced repetition also enhances retention. A question with practical and theoretical significance is whether there are particular schedules of spaced retrieval (e.g., gradually expanding the interval between tests) that produce the best learning. In the present experiment, subjects studied and were tested on items until they could recall each one. They then practiced recalling the items on 3 repeated tests that were distributed according to one of several spacing schedules. Increasing the absolute (total) spacing of repeated tests produced large effects on long-term retention: Repeated retrieval with long intervals between each test produced a 200% improvement in long-term retention relative to repeated retrieval with no spacing between tests. However, there was no evidence that a particular relative spacing schedule (expanding, equal, or contracting) was inherently superior to another. Although expanding schedules afforded a pattern of increasing retrieval difficulty across repeated tests, this did not translate into gains in long-term retention. Repeated spaced retrieval had powerful effects on retention, but the relative schedule of repeated tests had no discernible impact. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multiple systems for cognitive control: Evidence from a hybrid prime-Simon task.

Cognitive control resolves conflicts between appropriate and inappropriate response tendencies. Is this achieved by a unitary all-purpose conflict control system, or do independent subsystems deal with different aspects of conflicting information? In a fully factorial hybrid prime-Simon task, participants responded to the identity of targets displayed at different nominally irrelevant screen locations, preceded by nominally irrelevant, consciously or nonconsciously perceived primes. The response required by the target's identity could match or mismatch (a) the target's location, and (b) the prime's identity, resulting in potential conflict (a) across and (b) within stimulus domains. Conflict effects were investigated within and across trials. Results suggest that (i) nonconsciously perceived information elicits within-trial control, but—unlike consciously perceived information—no across-trial behavioral modulation; (ii) separate subsystems deal with conflicts arising from different stimulus domains; and (iii) occasional apparent interactions between domains reflect a particular difficulty in reactivating a just-discarded response (reactivation aversion effect, RAE). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

“非平面阴极”槽生产过程的控制策略

根据"非平面阴极"对电解槽铝液波动的抑制原理和效果,提出对该类槽型主要技术参数和过程的控制,并针对存在的缺陷,对研发方向给出一定的参考意见。     

以COREX煤气为燃料的发电机组燃料控制策略

某大型冶金企业CCPP联合循环机组是从美国GE公司引进的世界首台以COREX煤气为燃料的燃气-蒸汽联合循环发电机组。以COREX煤气为燃料,其成分、压力及热值等与常规联合循环发电机组燃烧的高炉煤气、天燃气、重油等有较大差别,特殊性较强。本文从调试及生产实际出发,详细介绍了其燃料系统的调节策略和特点,特别是高低压煤压机防喘阀参与燃料调整的现象,为国内外同类型机组的设计和调试提供了参考和借鉴。     

基于九区图的变电站电压无功控制策略研究

对基于九区图的各种变电站电压无功控制原理和策略进行了综述，介绍了其演变过程，分析了其存在的主要缺陷及在使用中可能会出现的问题，并对VQC的发展方向作了简介。     

Long-term priming of neighbours biases the word recognition process: Evidence from a lexical decision task.

The role of orthographically similar words (i.e., neighbours) in the word recognition process has been studied extensively using short-term priming paradigms (e.g., Colombo, 1986). Here we demonstrate that long-term effects of neighbour priming can also be obtained. Experiment 1 showed that prior study of a neighbour (e.g., TANGO) increased later lexical decision performance for similar words (e.g., MANGO), but decreased performance for similar pseudowords (e.g., LANGO). Experiment 2 replicated this bias effect and showed that the increase in lexical decision performance due to neighbour priming is selectively due to words from a relatively sparse neighbourhood. Explanations of the bias effect in terms of lexical activation and episodic memory retrieval are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)