State dependence and trait stability of perfectionism: A short-term longitudinal study.

The authors examined state dependency on depression, trait stability, and state-trait characteristics of perfectionism in a short-term longitudinal study of university students. Relative stability of perfectionism was assessed with test-retest correlations across 3 time points, and results showed higher rank order and relative stability for perfectionism scores compared with depression scores. Regression and path analyses to disentangle directions of effects revealed that initial maladaptive perfectionism scores remained robust predictors of later perfectionism scores, even after the authors controlled for prior and concurrent depression and other dimensions of perfectionism. Perfectionism proved to be quite stable and was a significant predictor of later depression. Perfectionism was also not meaningfully altered by state changes in depression. The overall findings indicate that perfectionism appears to have substantial relative stability, and perfectionistic discrepancy in particular is a clear vulnerability factor for depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Acculturative stress, perfectionism, years in the United States, and depression among Chinese international students.

The present study examined whether maladaptive perfectionism (i.e., discrepancy between expectations and performance) and length of time in the United States moderated the association between acculturative stress and depression. Data were collected through online surveys from 189 Chinese international students from China and Taiwan attending a midwestern university. Results from a hierarchical regression showed that there were significant main effects of acculturative stress and maladaptive perfectionism on depression, no significant two-way interactions, and a significant three-way interaction, indicating that acculturative stress, maladaptive perfectionism, and length of time in the United States interacted to predict depression. Low maladaptive perfectionism buffered the effect of acculturative stress on depression only for those who had been in the United States for a relatively longer period of time. Implications for counseling and future research directions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship of perfectionism, depression, and therapeutic alliance during treatment for depression: Latent difference score analysis.

The authors examined the longitudinal relationship of patient-rated perfectionism, clinician-rated depression, and observer-rated therapeutic alliance using the latent difference score (LDS) analytic framework. Outpatients involved in the Treatment for Depression Collaborative Research Program completed measures of perfectionism and depression at 5 occasions throughout treatment, with therapeutic alliance measured early in therapy. First, LDS analyses of perfectionism and depression established longitudinal change models. Further LDS analyses revealed significant longitudinal interrelationships, in which perfectionism predicted the subsequent rate of depression change, consistent with a personality vulnerability model of depression. In the final LDS model, the strength of the therapeutic alliance significantly predicted longitudinal perfectionism change, and perfectionism significantly predicted the rate of depression change throughout therapy. These results clarify the patterns of growth and change for these indicators throughout depression treatment, demonstrating an alternative method for evaluating longitudinal dynamics in therapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of perfectionism and personality disorder features in response to brief treatment for depression.

Using data from the Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program (TDCRP), the authors compared the role of patients' perfectionism and features of personality disorder (PD) in the outcome of brief treatment for depression. Data were extracted as to patients' intake levels of symptoms; perfectionism; and PD features, measured as continuous variables, as well as their symptoms at termination; their contribution to the therapeutic alliance; and their satisfaction with social relations. Poorer therapeutic outcome was demonstrated for patients with elevated levels of perfectionism and odd-eccentric and depressive PD features. Patients' contribution to therapeutic alliance and satisfaction with social relations were predicted by perfectionism but not by PD features. Results highlight the central role played by patients' personality in the course of brief treatment for depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The existential model of perfectionism and depressive symptoms: A short-term, four-wave longitudinal study.

Perfectionistic concerns (i.e., negative reactions to failures, concerns over others' criticism and expectations, and nagging self-doubts) are a putative risk factor for depressive symptoms. This study proposes and supports the existential model of perfectionism and depressive symptoms (EMPDS), a conceptual model aimed at explaining why perfectionistic concerns confer risk for depressive symptoms. According to the EMPDS, perfectionistic concerns confer risk for depressive symptoms both through catastrophic interpretations that magnify relatively minor setbacks into seemingly major obstacles and through negative views of life experiences as unacceptable, dissatisfying, and meaningless. This investigation tests the EMPDS in a sample of 240 undergraduates studied using a 4-wave, 4-week longitudinal design. Hypotheses derived from the EMPDS were largely supported, with bootstrap tests of mediation suggesting that the indirect effect of perfectionistic concerns on depressive symptoms through catastrophic thinking and difficulty accepting the past is significant. Results indicated perfectionistic concerns are more an antecedent of, rather than a complication of, catastrophic thinking, difficulty accepting the past, and depressive symptoms. Consistent (but imperfect) support for the incremental validity of the EMPDS beyond either perfectionistic strivings or neuroticism was also observed. Overall, this investigation suggests persons high in perfectionistic concerns not only tend to catastrophize their life experiences but also struggle to accept their life experiences and to negotiate a sense of purpose, direction, and coherence in their lives. With both a catastrophic view of their present and a dark view of their past, this investigation also suggests persons high in perfectionistic concerns are at risk for depressive symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The multidimensional structure of perfectionism in clinically distressed and college student samples.

Confirmatory factor analysis was used to evaluate 2 multidimensional measures of perfectionism (R. 0 Frost, P. Marten, C. Lahart, & R. Rosenblate, 1990; P. L. Hewitt & G. L. Flett, 1991). On a first-order level, support was found for Hewitt and Flett's (1991) original 3-factor conceptualization of perfectionism, although only for an empirically derived 15-item subset. Support was also obtained for 5 of the 6 dimensions proposed by R. O. Frost et al. (1990), but the model only displayed good fit when a refined scale containing 22 of the original 35 items was used. A second-order analysis found evidence for 2 higher-order factors of adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism. Perfectionism dimensions correlated in expected directions with personality domains, symptom distress, and academic achievement. The brief measures of perfectionism also retained the construct-related validity displayed by the full-item versions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perfectionism dimensions and research productivity in psychology professors: Implications for understanding the (mal)adaptiveness of perfectionism.

The consequences of demanding perfection of oneself are hotly debated, with researchers typically arguing for either the adaptiveness or the maladaptiveness of this trait. Research informing this debate involves mainly psychiatric patients, undergraduates, and self-report data, suggesting a need to broaden this relatively narrow evidence base. The present study examines self-oriented perfectionism (i.e., demanding perfection of oneself), conscientiousness, socially prescribed perfectionism, neuroticism, and research productivity in psychology professors. Self-oriented perfectionism was negatively related to total number of publications, number of first-authored publications, number of citations, and journal impact rating, even after controlling for competing predictors (e.g., conscientiousness). Self-oriented perfectionism may represent a form of counterproductive overstriving that limits research productivity amongst psychology professors. Although self-oriented perfectionism is often labeled as adaptive, such statements may be overly general. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A preliminary study of perfectionism and loneliness as predictors of depressive and anxious symptoms in Latinas: A top-down test of a model.

In the present study, we used a top-down approach to examine perfectionism and loneliness as additive sociocognitive predictors of depressive and anxious symptoms in a sample of 121 Latina college students. Consistent with expectations, we found perfectionism and loneliness to be associated with both depressive and anxious symptoms. In addition, results of conducting hierarchical regression analyses indicated that certain dimensions of perfectionism, especially doubts about actions, accounted for significant variance in both depressive and anxious symptoms. Moreover, the inclusion of loneliness as a predictor was found to predict additional unique variance in both depressive and anxious symptoms beyond what was accounted for by perfectionism. Implications of the present findings for future research on negative affective conditions in Latinas are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of emotional dysregulation in perfectionism and psychological distress.

Data from a sample of university students (N = 349) were used to test a model in which emotional dysregulation (a composite of emotional reactivity and splitting) was expected to account for the effect of perfectionism on general psychological distress. Significant positive effects were observed between maladaptive perfectionism and distress, whereas significant inverse effects were found for adaptive perfectionism. Structural equations analyses revealed support for a possibly mediational role of emotional dysregulation. Future research suggestions as well as counseling recommendations are proposed that target emotional regulatory features of the client with perfectionistic tendencies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental origins of perfectionism among African American youth.

The present study used a person-centered latent variable approach to classify types of perfectionism among 6th-grade African American children living in an urban setting. In particular, the authors were interested in determining whether an adaptive subtype could be found and validated against external criteria. The authors also attempted to identify any developmental precursors that could reliably differentiate the perfectionist subtypes. A social learning and competence framework was used to select potential 1st-grade risk and protective factors for future perfectionism profiles. Four classes best described the children's perfectionism scores in 6th grade. Three of these classes resembled the profiles most commonly seen in prior perfectionism research (Non-Critical/Adaptive, Critical/Maladaptive, and Non-Perfectionist). The fourth class, Non-Striving, was characterized by extremely low levels of reported personal standards. Sixth-grade correlates confirmed the distinctiveness of these classes. In particular, the Critical/Maladaptive and Non-Striving classes had higher rates of internalizing symptoms and disorders. Additionally, several 1st-grade predictors suggested unique developmental origins of these classes. The Critical/Maladaptive class was characterized by lower academic skills and elevated teacher-rated attention problems, hyperactivity, shyness, and peer rejection. The Non-Striving class had higher rates of family alcohol problems and lower levels of parent praise. Implications regarding the universal and culture-specific origins and effects of perfectionism are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perfectionism dimensions, perfectionistic attitudes, dependent attitudes, and depression in psychiatric patients and university students.

P. L. Hewitt and G. L. Flett's (1991b) model of perfectionism dimensions (i.e., self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism) was compared with A. T. Beck's model (G. P. Brown & A.T. Beck, 2002) of dysfunctional attitudes (i.e., perfectionistic attitudes [PA] and dependent attitudes [DA]) in predicting depression in 70 psychiatric patients and 280 university students. Socially prescribed perfectionism uniquely predicted both PA and DA. Dysfunctional attitudes failed to consistently predict additional variance in depression beyond perfectionism dimensions (and vice versa). Evidence for Hewitt and Flett's specific vulnerability hypothesis and Beck's specific cognitive vulnerability hypothesis was equivocal. Beck's conceptualization of perfectionism as a unitary cognitive style obscures important information by overlooking the distinction between the self-related and socially based features of perfectionism. Hewitt and Flett's conceptualization of perfectionism as 3 distinct personality traits allows for precise conclusions by recognizing the differential contribution of the self-related and socially based features of perfectionism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychache as a mediator in the relationship between perfectionism and suicidality.

E. S. Shneidman (1993) has proposed that psychache (i.e., unbearable psychological pain) is directly associated with suicide and mediates the effects of all other relevant psychological factors. The present research tested this proposition by examining whether psychache mediates the relationship between perfectionism and suicidality. Furthermore, the link between perfectionism and psychache was examined for mediation by unfulfilled psychological needs. Participants were 264 undergraduate students. Structural equation modeling with bootstrapped estimates determined that psychache fully mediated the relationship between socially prescribed perfectionism and suicidality. Additionally, the relationship between socially prescribed perfectionism and psychache was partially mediated by unfulfilled psychological needs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dimensions of perfectionism in unipolar depression.

We tested the hypothesis that self-oriented perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism are related differentially to unipolar depression. The Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale was administered along with measures of depression and anxiety to 22 depressed patients, 22 matched normal control Ss, and 13 anxiety patients. It was found that the depressed patients had higher levels of self-oriented perfectionism than did either the psychiatric or normal control Ss. In addition, depressed patients and anxious patients reported higher levels of socially prescribed perfectionism than did the normal control Ss. The results suggest that various dimensions of perfectionism may play an important role in clinical depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perfectionism, negative social feedback, and interpersonal rumination in depression and social anxiety.

The current study investigated the associations among trait perfectionism, perfectionistic self-presentation, negative social feedback, interpersonal rumination, depressive symptoms, and social anxiety. New measures of negative social feedback and interpersonal rumination were used to evaluate their relevance to the social aspects of perfectionism and their roles in distress. A sample of 155 undergraduate students completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, the Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale, the Social Feedback Questionnaire, Rumination About an Interpersonal Offense, and measures of depressive symptoms and social anxiety. The results confirmed that socially prescribed perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentation were associated significantly with negative social feedback and rumination following interpersonal events (i.e., being hurt, humiliated, mistreated). Also, depressive symptoms and social anxiety were associated significantly with negative social feedback, interpersonal rumination, trait perfectionism, and perfectionistic self-presentation. Additional analyses indicated that negative social feedback and interpersonal rumination mediated the links between components of the perfectionism construct and distress. Overall, our findings suggest that self-reported receipt of frequent negative feedback from others and engaging in rumination about an interpersonal event play important roles in the distress experienced by certain individuals with high levels of perfectionism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adaptive elements of aging: Self-image discrepancy, perfectionism, and eating problems.

Age-related changes in personality variables that may contribute to the reduction of symptoms of eating disorders with adult development were examined. Undergraduate sorority women (n = 52; mean age = 19.85 years) were compared with alumnae of the same sorority (n = 34; mean age = 33.74 years). Eating pathology was correlated with greater discrepancy between the real (current) and the ideal (desired) self-image and with perfectionism. Both self-image discrepancy and perfectionism were markedly lower among the alumnae. Variance in these variables together accounted for the lowered level of eating pathology among the older participants. Specific content domains of the real and ideal self-image and different facets of perfectionism showed distinctive age-related changes and differential relationships with eating pathology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The perfectionism model of binge eating: Tests of an integrative model.

This study proposes, tests, and supports the perfectionism model of binge eating (PMOBE), a model aimed at explaining why perfectionism is related to binge eating. According to this model, socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP) confers risk for binge eating by generating exposure to 4 triggers of binge episodes: interpersonal discrepancies, low interpersonal esteem, depressive affect, and dietary restraint. In testing the PMOBE, a daily diary was completed by 566 women for 7 days. Predictions derived from the PMOBE were supported, with tests of mediation suggesting that the indirect effect of SPP on binge eating through triggers of binge episodes was significant. Reciprocal relations were also observed, with certain triggers of binge episodes predicting binge eating (and vice versa). Results supported the incremental validity of the PMOBE over and above self-oriented perfectionism and neuroticism and the generalizability of this model across Asian and European Canadian participants. The PMOBE offers a novel view of individuals with high levels of SPP as active agents who raise their risk of binge eating by generating conditions in their daily lives that are conducive to binge episodes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Three-month stability of delay and probability discounting measures.

Psychopharmacologists are interested in delay and probability discounting because the tendency to discount the value of future and uncertain rewards has been linked with drug dependency. However, relatively little is known about the long-term stability of discounting measures typically studied in clinical psychopharmacology. To evaluate the stability of discounting over a 3-month period, the authors compared points of subjective equality (indifference points) with those collected from the same subjects 3 months earlier. Seven delay periods, ranging from 1 week to 25 years, and 7 probability values, ranging from .95 to .05, were assessed in an undergraduate sample (n=22, delay discounting; n=18, probability discounting). The authors examined both differential stability (stability of individual differences) and absolute stability (stability of the group mean) of delay and probability discounting measures as well as their respective indifference points. The results demonstrate that standard delay and probability discounting parameters (e.g., hyperbolic k and area under the curve) had both differential stability and absolute stability across 3 months. Moreover, most indifference points in the delay and probability discounting tasks demonstrated both differential and absolute stability. All together, these results suggest that delay and probability parameters are stable enough to predict future behavior, such as substance abuse. Additional findings indicated that a hyperbolic function fitted the data better than an exponential function and that delay and probability discounting parameters were not significantly correlated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maladaptive perfectionism, hassles, coping, and psychological distress in university professors.

This study examined the roles of hassles, avoidant and problem-focused coping, and perceived social support as mediating the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and psychological distress in a sample of university professors. Hassles and avoidant coping both partially mediated a strong association between maladaptive perfectionism and psychological distress. These results are discussed in terms of the need to better understand how coping styles and social support are associated with the negative impact of perfectionism on the lives of university professors. The implications of these findings for counseling practice are also explored. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicting hopelessness and psychological distress: The role of perfectionism and coping.

This study investigated an integrative model involving the relationship between perfectionism (P. L. Hewitt & G. L. Flett, 1991) and coping (C. S. Carver, A F. Scheier. & J. K. Weintraub, 1989) to predict changes in hopelessness and general psychological distress among college students. Results indicated that changes in psychological well-being (4-5 weeks later) were predicted by socially prescribed perfectionism, and, as theorized, avoidance coping moderated the link between perfectionism and psychological well-being beyond initial levels of distress. Support was also found for the adaptive effects of cognitive reconstruction coping and other-oriented perfectionism, whereas, under certain conditions, self-oriented perfectionism was shown to be maladaptive. These findings offer support for the proposed model. Implications for intervention and suggestions for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)