Principle and method of speed control for dynamic walking biped robots

In this paper, the method of speed control for 3D biped robots is addressed. First, the primary principle of speed control by regulation of input energy is studied, the feature of which is to regulate the speed and the step length synchronically. The method of Poincaré mapping is used to prove the stability of speed control in the common range. Second, a method of speed control for an 18 DOFs bipedal 3D robot, which is characterized by the two-point-foot, is proposed. The method is developed on the basis of the 3D walking pattern proposed previously, with the new function of speed regulation being added in. The simulations show that the performances of regular walking, acceleration, and deceleration are effective and stable, and therefore verify the feasibility of the proposed method. Furthermore, some walking features, such as the walking efficiency and lateral control, are demonstrated.     

基于脉冲推力的半被动双足机器人无模型神经网络控制

研究了半被动双足机器人的平面稳定行走控制问题。以最简行走模型为动力学模型,采用沿支撑腿方向的脚后跟脉冲推力作为行走动力源。考虑到系统模型的非线性特征,将基于三角函数扩展的函数链接型人工神经网络控制算法引入到机器人系统中,以产生系统所需的脉冲推力。并采用基于数据驱动的无模型同步扰动随机逼近算法对神经网络的权值进行更新。利用庞加莱映射方法分析了半被动双足机器人行走的稳定条件。在理论分析的基础上,对该算法进行了仿真研究。仿真结果表明：文中所提算法在收敛快速性上要优于迭代学习控制算法,可以实现双足机器人平面上的稳定周期行走。且雅可比矩阵的特征值均位于单位圆内,满足系统的稳定条件。     

Gait generation and control for biped robots with underactuation degree one

The paper develops a unified feedback control law for n degree-of-freedom biped robots with one degree of underactuation so as to generate periodic orbits on different slopes. The periodic orbits on different slopes are produced from an original periodic orbit, which is either a natural passive limit cycle on a specific slope or a stable periodic walking gait on level ground generated with active control. First, inspired by the controlled symmetries approach, a general result on gait generation on different slopes based on a periodic orbit on a specific slope is obtained. Second, the time-scaling control approach is integrated to reproduce geometrically same periodic orbits for biped robots with one degree of underactuation. The degree of underactuation is compensated by one degree-of-freedom in the temporal evolution that scales the original periodic orbit. Necessary and sufficient conditions are investigated for the existence and stability properties of periodic orbits on different slopes with the proposed control law. Finally, the proposed approach is illustrated by two kinds of underactuated biped robots: one has a passive gait on a specific ground slope and the other does not have a natural passive gait.     

Passive dynamic turning in 3D biped locomotion: an extension to passive dynamic walking

Passive dynamic walking usually refers to a kind of walking where a biped walker is able to walk downhill, without any actuation or control, just due to the gravity. Although most of works done in this regard have concentrated on passive walking along a straight line, in this paper we extend this concept to a more general case of locomotion, i.e. turning or walking along curved path. We call the novel extension passive turning, and categorize it to two types of finite and infinite. We showed that the finite type is still applicable on a typical downhill or ramp, while the infinite type is only practical on a specific surface profile that we call it helical ramp. Furthermore, several stability and parameter analysis are also conducted to evaluate more aspects of this notion. We highlighted that surprisingly, the passive straight walking is actually a special case of passive turning, just with infinite radius of turn and less asymptotical stability. It should be noted that the present study is performed using a model of an arc-foot three-dimensional (3D) compass gait walker.     

Stability and control of dynamic walking for a five-link planar biped robot with feet

During dynamic walking of biped robots, the underactuated rotating degree of freedom (DOF) emerges between the support foot and the ground, which makes the biped model hybrid and dimension-variant.This paper addresses the asymptotic orbit stability for criterion for DVHS is also presented, and the result is then used to study dynamic walking for a five-link planar biped robot with feet. Time-invariant gait planning and nonlinear control strategy for dynamic walking with flat feet is also introduced. Simulation results indicate that an asymptotically stable limit cycle of dynamic walking is achieved by the proposed method.     

Stability and control of dynamic walking for a five-link planar biped robot with feet

During dynamic walking of biped robots, the underactuated rotating degree of freedom （DOF） emerges between the support foot and the ground, which makes the biped model hybrid and dimension-variant. This paper addresses the asymptotic orbit stability for dimension-variant hybrid systems （DVHS）. Based on the generalized Poincare map, the stability criterion for DVHS is also presented, and the result is then used to study dynamic walking for a five-link planar biped robot with feet. Time-invariant gait planning and nonlinear control strategy for dynamic walking with fiat feet is also introduced. Simulation results indicate that an asymptotically stable limit cycle of dynamic walking is achieved by the proposed method.     

基于Fuzzy–CPG的双足机器人适应性行走控制

为提高双足机器人的环境适应性,本文提出了一种基于模糊控制与中枢模式发生器(CPG)的混合控制策略,称之为Fuzzy–CPG算法.高层控制中枢串联模糊控制系统,将环境反馈信息映射为行走步态信息和CPG幅值参数.低层控制中枢CPG根据高层输出命令产生节律性信号,作为机器人的关节控制信号.通过机器人运动,获取环境信息并反馈给高层控制中枢,产生下一步的运动命令.在坡度和凹凸程度可变的仿真环境中进行混合控制策略的实验验证,结果表明,本文提出的Fuzzy–CPG控制方法可以使机器人根据环境的变化产生适应的行走步态,提高了双足机器人的环境适应性行走能力.     

Central pattern generators based on Matsuoka oscillators for the locomotion of biped robots

Biologically inspired control approaches based on central pattern generators (CPGs) with neural oscillators have been drawing much attention for the purpose of generating rhythmic motion for biped robots with human-like locomotion. This article describes the design of a neural-oscillator-based gait-rhythm generator using a network of Matsuoka oscillators to generate a walking pattern for biped robots. This includes the proper consideration of the oscillator’s parameters, such as a time constant for the adaptation rate, coupling factors for mutual inhibitory connections, etc., to obtain a stable and desirable response from the network. The article examines the characteristics of a CPG network with six oscillators, and the effect of assigning symmetrical and asymmetrical coupling coefficients among oscillators within the network structure under different possible inhibitions and excitations. The kinematics and dynamics of a five-link biped robot have been modeled, and its joints are actuated through simulation by the torques output from the neural rhythm generator to generate the trajectories for hip, knee, and ankle joints. The parameters of the neural oscillators are tuned to achieve flexible trajectories. The CPG-based control strategy is implemented and tested through a simulation. This work was presented in part at the 12th International Symposium on Artificial Life and Robotics, Oita, Japan, January 25–27, 2007     

A hybrid SOF-PID controller for a MIMO biped robot

The application of the hybrid self-organizing fuzzy (SOF) PID controller to a multiinput multioutput nonlinear biped robot is studied in this article. The SOF-PID controller was initially studied by H.B. Kazemian in 1998. Actually, his SOF-PID controller has limits. The supervisory capacity of the SOF-PID controller can adjust only certain kinds of parameters. Here the hybrid SOF-PID controller is introduced to tune some kinds of parameters, and it was tested on a MIMO biped robot. In the experiment, the hybrid SOF-PID controller shows a better performance than the SOF-PID. This work was presented in part at the 10th International Symposium on Artificial Life and Robotics, Oita, Japan, February 4–6, 2005     

Imitation learning of humanoid locomotion using the direction of landing foot

Since it is quite difficult to create motions for humanoid robots having a fairly large number of degrees of freedom, it would be very convenient indeed if robots could observe and imitate what they want to create. To this end, this paper discusses how humanoid robots can learn through imitation taking into consideration the fact that demonstrator and imitator robots may have different kinematics and dynamics. As part of a wider interest in humanoid motion generation in general, this work mainly investigates how imitator robots adapt a reference locomotion gait copied from a demonstrator robot. Specifically, the self-adjusting adaptor is proposed, where the perceived locomotion pattern is modified to keep the direction of the lower leg contacting the ground identical between the demonstrator and the imitator, and to sustain dynamic stability by controlling the position of the center of mass. The validity of the proposed scheme is verified through simulations on OpenHRP and real experiments. Recommended by Editorial Board member Hyoukryeol Choi under the direction of Editor Jae-Bok Song. This work was conducted as a program for the “Fostering Talent in Emergent Research Fields” in Special Coordination Funds for the Promotion of Science and Technology by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan. This work was also supported in part by MIC and IITA of Korea through IT Leading R&D Support Project. [2009-S028-01, Development of Cooperative Network-based Humanoids Technology] Woosung Yang received his B.S. and M.S. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sogang University, Seoul, Korea in 2001 and 2003, and his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information Science from Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (JAIST), Ishikawa, Japan in 2007, respectively. Since 2007, he has been a Post-doctoral Researcher in Center for Cognitive Robotics, Korea Institute of Science and Technology. His research interests include intelligent control theory, biologically inspired control and system, humanoids, and actuator controls for small form factor precision devices. Nak Young Chong received his B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea in 1987, 1989, and 1994, respectively. He was senior researcher at Daewoo Heavy Industries Ltd. (1994–98), visiting researcher at MEL in Tsukuba, Japan (1995–96), and postdoctoral researcher at KIST (1998). From 1998–2007, he was on the research staff of AIST in Tsukuba, Japan. In 2003, he joined the faculty of JAIST as Associate Professor of Information Science. Dr. Chong served as Co-chair of the IEEE RAS Technical Committee on Networked Robots (2004–06), and the Fujitsu Scientific Systems Robotics WG (2004–06) and Robot Information Processing WG (2006–08), respectively. He visited Northwestern University (2001) and Georgia Tech (2008–09). He is currently serving as Associate Editor of the IEEE Transactions on Robotics and the International Journal of Assistive Robotics and Systems. He is the Korea Robotics Society director of international cooperation, and a member of IEEE, RSJ, and SICE.     

Optimal two-degree-of-freedom fuzzy control for locomotion control of a hydraulically actuated hexapod robot

Locomotion control of legged robots is a very challenging task because very accurate foot trajectory tracking control is necessary for stable walking. An electro-hydraulically actuated walking robot has sufficient power to walk on rough terrain and carry a heavier payload. However, electro-hydraulic servo systems suffer from various shortcomings such as a high degree of nonlinearity, uncertainty due to changing hydraulic properties, delay due to oil flow and dead-zone of the proportional electromagnetic control valves. These shortcomings lead to inaccurate analytical system model, therefore, application of classical control techniques result into large tracking error. Fuzzy logic is capable of modeling mathematically complex or ill-defined systems. Therefore, fuzzy logic is becoming popular for synthesis of control systems for complex and nonlinear plants. In this investigation, a two-degree-of-freedom fuzzy controller, consisting of a one-step-ahead fuzzy prefilter in the feed-forward loop and a PI-like fuzzy controller in the feedback loop, has been proposed for foot trajectory tracking control of a hydraulically actuated hexapod robot. The fuzzy prefilter has been designed by a genetic algorithm (GA) based optimization. The prefilter overcomes the flattery delay caused by the hydraulic dead-zone of the electromagnetic proportional control valve and thus helps to achieve better tracking. The feedback fuzzy controller ensures the stability of the overall system in the face of model uncertainty associated with hydraulically actuated robotic mechanisms. Experimental results exhibit that the proposed controller manifests better foot trajectory tracking performance compared to single-degree-of-freedom (SDF) fuzzy controller or optimal classical controller like state feedback LQR controller.     

双足机器人动态步行实时步态生成

针对双足机器人动态步行生成关节运动轨迹复杂问题,提出了一种简单直观的实时步态生成方案。建立了平面五杆双足机器人动力学模型,通过模仿人类步行主要运动特征并根据双足机器人动态步行双腿姿态变化的要求,将动态步行复杂任务分解为顺序执行的四个过程,在关节空间相对坐标系下设计了躯干运动模式、摆动腿和支撑腿动作及步行速度调整模式,结合当前步行控制结果反馈实时产生稳定的关节运动轨迹。仿真实验验证了该方法的有效性,简单易实现。     

A novel compound biped locomotion algorithm for humanoid robots to realize biped walking

In this paper, a compound biped locomotion algorithm for a humanoid robot under development is presented. This paper is organized in two main parts. In the first part, it mainly focuses on the structural design for the humanoid. In the second part, the compound biped locomotion algorithm is presented based on the reference motion and reference Zero Moment Point （ZMP）. This novel algorithm includes calculation of the upper body motion and trajectory of the Center of Gravity （COG） of the robot. First, disturbances from the environment are eliminated by the compensational movement of the upper body; then based on the error between a reference ZMP and the real ZMP as well as the relation between ZMP and CoG, the CoG error is calculated, thus leading to the CoG trajectory. Then, the motion of the robot converges to its reference motion, generating stable biped walking. Because the calculation of upper body motion and trajectory of CoG both depend on the reference motion, they can work in parallel, thus providing double insurances against the robot＇s collapse. Finally, the algorithm is validated by different kinds of simulation experiments.     

Neuro-fuzzy gait synthesis with reinforcement learning for a biped walking robot

 A reinforcement learning-based neuro-fuzzy gait synthesizer, which is based on the GARIC (Generalized Approximate Reasoning for Intelligent Control) architecture, is proposed for the problem of biped dynamic balance. We modify the GARIC architecture to enable it to generate the trunk trajectory in both sagittal and frontal plane. The proposed gait synthesizer is trained by reinforcement learning that uses a multi-valued scalar signal to evaluate the degrees of failure or success for the biped locomotion by means of the ZMP (Zero Moment Point). It can form the initial dynamic balancing gait from linguistic rules, which are obtained from human intuitive balancing knowledge and biomechanics studies, and accumulate dynamic balancing knowledge through reinforcement learning, and thus constantly improve its gait during walking. The feasibility of the proposed method is verified through a 5-link biped robot simulation.     

Model and control of the locomotion of a biomimic musculoskeletal biped

This article presents a biomimic musculoskeletal biped which contains 7 segments and 18 muscles. The muscle model and body dynamics are constructed based on physiological theories. A motor control system is designed to mimic natural human locomotion, which contains a central pattern generator, a regulator, a compensator, and an impedance controller. The recurrent neural oscillator models the central pattern generator, and an artificial neural network is used to design the regulator. From the simulation study, we found that this biped can produce a rhythmic and stable walking movement similar to actual human walking.     

Balance recovery control for biped robot based on reaction null space method

A biped walking robot should be able to keep balance even in the presence of disturbing forces. This paper presents a step strategy concept of biped walking robot that is stabilized by using reaction null space method. The called ＂step strategy＂ can be modeled by means of the reaction null space method that introduced earlier to tackle dynamic interaction problems of free-floating robots, or moving base robots in general. 6-DOF biped robot model simulations are used to confirm the validity.     

Reflex control of bipedal locomotion on a slippery surface

Biped robots are expected to walk on many different and previously unknown terrains including slippery surfaces on which no prior information is available. It is very important that biped robots have an ability to walk on a slippery surface which it meets so suddenly, since any damage to biped robots will be very costly. In order to prevent falling down on a suddenly encountered slippery surface, this paper proposes a reflex control method for biped robots to quickly recover their posture from a foot slip upon its detection. Computer simulations were performed with a 12-d.o.f. biped robot model and a 6-d.o.f. elastic pad model, the latter of which consists of nonlinear dampers, and linear and nonlinear springs. Simulation results show that the proposed method is very effective in preventing biped robots falling down when walking on a slippery surface.     

基于能效优化的两足机器人步态控制方法

针对高能耗导致的两足机器人实用化障碍,提出了一种全新的、系统化的步态能效优化控制方法.基于两足机器人运动的重要能耗指标(平均功率、平均功率偏差、平均力矩损耗),提出了能耗预估策略和能效优化算法,获取了零力矩点(ZMP)稳定区域内的能耗极小值.沿着能耗极小值所对应的上体轨迹对机器人步态实施能效优化控制,最终获得满足ZMP稳定判据的低能耗步态.仿真结果证明,该方法能够有效降低机器人能耗并保持其稳定性.     

Balance recovery control for biped robot based on reaction null space method

A biped walking robot should be able to keep balance even in the presence of disturbing forces.This paper presents a step strategy concept of biped walking robot that is stabilized by using reaction null space method.The called "step strategy" can be modeled by means of the reaction null space method that introduced earlier to tackle dynamic interaction problems of free-floating robots,or moving base robots in general.6-DOF biped robot model simulations are used to confirm the validity.