The causal role of interpretive bias in anxiety reactivity.

Elevated anxiety vulnerability is associated with a tendency to interpret ambiguous stimuli as threatening, but the causal basis of this relationship has not been established. Recently, procedures have been developed to systematically manipulate interpretive bias, but the impact of such manipulation on anxiety reactivity to a subsequent stressor has not yet been examined. In the present study, training procedures were used to induce interpretive biases favoring the threatening or nonthreatening meanings of ambiguous information in a sample of 48 undergraduate students. Following this interpretive training, participants' emotional reactions to a stressful video were assessed. The finding that the manipulation of interpretive bias modified emotional reactivity supports the hypothesis that interpretive bias can indeed play a causal role in anxiety vulnerability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A meta-analysis of the effect of cognitive bias modification on anxiety and depression.

Cognitive biases have been theorized to play a critical role in the onset and maintenance of anxiety and depression. Cognitive bias modification (CBM), an experimental paradigm that uses training to induce maladaptive or adaptive cognitive biases, was developed to test these causal models. Although CBM has generated considerable interest in the past decade, both as an experimental paradigm and as a form of treatment, there have been no quantitative reviews of the effect of CBM on anxiety and depression. This meta-analysis of 45 studies (2,591 participants) assessed the effect of CBM on cognitive biases and on anxiety and depression. CBM had a medium effect on biases (g = 0.49) that was stronger for interpretation (g = 0.81) than for attention (g = 0.29) biases. CBM further had a small effect on anxiety and depression (g = 0.13), although this effect was reliable only when symptoms were assessed after participants experienced a stressor (g = 0.23). When anxiety and depression were examined separately, CBM significantly modified anxiety but not depression. There was a nonsignificant trend toward a larger effect for studies including multiple training sessions. These findings are broadly consistent with cognitive theories of anxiety and depression that propose an interactive effect of cognitive biases and stressors on these symptoms. However, the small effect sizes observed here suggest that this effect may be more modest than previously believed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Covariation in natural causal induction.

The covariation component of everyday causal inference has been depicted, in both cognitive and social psychology as well as in philosophy, as heterogeneous and prone to biases. The models and biases discussed in these domains are analyzed with respect to focal sets: contextually determined sets of events over which covariation is computed. Moreover, these models are compared to the authors' probabilistic contrast model, which specifies causes as first and higher order contrasts computed over events in a focal set. Contrary to the previous depiction of covariation computation, the present assessment indicates that a single normative mechanism, the computation of probabilistic contrasts, underlies this essential component of natural causal induction both in everyday and in scientific situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modulatory role of serotonin in neural information processing: Implications for human psychopathology.

Investigation of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), which functions as a modulator in the CNS, across behavioral contexts suggests that a general principle of transmitter function may be derived that is independent of specific behaviors and specific neural loci. A functional principle of 5-HT action in neural information processing in the CNS is proposed. Extremes deviations in 5-HT activity result in biases in information processing that may have direct effects on behavior. Such biases may predispose to pathological conditions such as violent suicide and aggression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assessing the validity of the achievement motive in the presence of random measurement error.

The presence of random measurement error in indicators of theoretical constructs biases observed estimates of relations among those constructs. Correcting for this bias is particularly important when random measurement error is substantial or is substantially different for indicators of distinct constructs included in a theoretical model. Validity assessment in the case of thematic apperceptive measures of the achievement motive (TAT n Achievement) has been vulnerable to interpretive errors because these indicators of the achievement motive are typically much less reliable than indicators of other constructs to which the motive may be related, and no correction has been made for the bias introduced by such differential measurement error. A causal modeling approach to validity assessment for TAT n Achievement is presented that incorporates explicit true-score measurement models of theoretical constructs. Data from J. Veroff et al (1981) on 413 adult US males confirm the hypothesis that the achievement motive construct is positively related to work satisfaction. Evidence for the discriminant validity of story content as opposed to story length, an issue raised in the literature on the TAT, is also presented in this nomological network. (56 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Integration of contingency information in judgments of cause, covariation, and probability.

Integration of contingency information underlies many cognitive tasks including causal, covariational, and probability judgments. The authors' feature-analytic approach was used to account for the findings that people differentially weight specific types of conjunctive information in causal (Experiment 1) and noncausal (Experiment 2) contingency judgments. These findings were explained in terms of positive-test and sufficiency-test biases, which were found in both judgment domains. The same biases, however, were not observed in normative conditional-probability judgments (Experiment 3). The authors argue that this discrepancy is owing to the differential clarity of normative criteria in these domains. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rational learning and information sampling: On the “naivety” assumption in sampling explanations of judgment biases.

Recent research has argued that several well-known judgment biases may be due to biases in the available information sample rather than to biased information processing. Most of these sample-based explanations assume that decision makers are “naive”: They are not aware of the biases in the available information sample and do not correct for them. Here, we show that this “naivety” assumption is not necessary. Systematically biased judgments can emerge even when decision makers process available information perfectly and are also aware of how the information sample has been generated. Specifically, we develop a rational analysis of Denrell's (2005) experience sampling model, and we prove that when information search is interested rather than disinterested, even rational information sampling and processing can give rise to systematic patterns of errors in judgments. Our results illustrate that a tendency to favor alternatives for which outcome information is more accessible can be consistent with rational behavior. The model offers a rational explanation for behaviors that had previously been attributed to cognitive and motivational biases, such as the in-group bias or the tendency to prefer popular alternatives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attention modification program in individuals with generalized anxiety disorder.

Research suggests that individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) show an attention bias for threat-relevant information. However, few studies have examined the causal role of attention bias in the maintenance of anxiety and whether modification of such biases may reduce pathological anxiety symptoms. In the present article, the authors tested the hypothesis that an 8-session attention modification program would (a) decrease attention bias to threat and (b) reduce symptoms of GAD. Participants completed a probe detection task by identifying letters (E or F) replacing one member of a pair of words. The authors trained attention by including a contingency between the location of the probe and the nonthreat word in one group (Attention Modification Program; AMP) and not in the other (attention control condition; ACC). Participants in the AMP showed change in attention bias and a decrease in anxiety, as indicated by both self-report and interviewer measures. These effects were not present in the ACC group. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that attention plays a causal role in the maintenance of GAD and suggest that altering attention mechanisms may effectively reduce anxiety. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How effective are the cross-examination and expert testimony safeguards? Jurors' perceptions of the suggestiveness and fairness of biased lineup procedures.

Mock jurors (N = 800) viewed a videotaped trial that included information about a lineup identification procedure. Suggestiveness of the eyewitness identification procedure varied in terms of foil, instruction, and presentation biases. Expert testimony regarding the factors that influence lineup suggestiveness was also manipulated. Criteria included juror ratings of lineup suggestiveness and fairness, ratings of defendant culpability, and verdicts. Jurors were sensitive to foil bias but only minimally sensitive to instruction and presentation biases. Expert testimony enhanced juror sensitivity only to instruction bias. These results have implications for the effectiveness of cross-examination and expert testimony as safeguards against erroneous convictions resulting from mistaken identifications. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clinical implications of attentional bias in anxiety disorders: An integrative literature review.

Research on information processing biases has been motivated by the hope that it would lead to new and more efficient psychotherapeutic interventions. The literature is abundant with empirical data of attentional biases toward threat stimuli in anxiety disorders. This article aims to review the existing literature on the topic of attentional bias in anxiety disorders and discuss important implications for clinical practice. We adopted an integrative approach to link research data on attentional bias, information processing, and cognitive accounts (automaticity and controllability) with clinical practice in cognitive-behavioral therapy. It is important to develop and apply therapeutic interventions that can effectively reduce negative attentional biases while treating the main problems associated with anxiety disorders. However, it remains to be seen whether cognitive therapy interventions targeting more voluntary, strategic information processing can have a positive impact on automatic, involuntary processing involved in attentional biases. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-serving biases in the attribution process: A reexamination of the fact or fiction question.

Examines the empirical evidence related to the notion of self-serving biases in causal attributions. D. T. Miller and M. Ross's (see record 1975-21041-001) reinterpretations of data that presumably reflect bias are discussed. The studies reviewed show relatively strong support for the causal asymmetry generally cited as evidence for self-serving, or defensive, attributions. Futhermore, a broadened self-serving bias formulation is presented, which suggests that under certain conditions, esteem needs may be best served by making counterdefensive attributions. Conditions that may be expected to elicit defensive or counterdefensive attributions are delineated. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stereotype formation: Biased by association.

We propose that biases in attitude and stereotype formation might arise as a result of learned differences in the extent to which social groups have previously been predictive of behavioral or physical properties. Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrate that differences in the experienced predictiveness of groups with respect to evaluatively neutral information influence the extent to which participants later form attitudes and stereotypes about those groups. In contrast, Experiment 3 shows no influence of predictiveness when using a procedure designed to emphasize the use of higher level reasoning processes, a finding consistent with the idea that the root of the predictiveness bias is not in reasoning. Experiments 4 and 5 demonstrate that the predictiveness bias in formation of group beliefs does not depend on participants making global evaluations of groups. These results are discussed in relation to the associative mechanisms proposed by Mackintosh (1975) to explain similar phenomena in animal conditioning and associative learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Time as a guide to cause.

How do people learn causal structure? In 2 studies, the authors investigated the interplay between temporal-order, intervention, and covariational cues. In Study 1, temporal order overrode covariation information, leading to spurious causal inferences when the temporal cues were misleading. In Study 2, both temporal order and intervention contributed to accurate causal inference well beyond that achievable through covariational data alone. Together, the studies show that people use both temporal-order and interventional cues to infer causal structure and that these cues dominate the available statistical information. A hypothesis-driven account of learning is endorsed, whereby people use cues such as temporal order to generate initial models and then test these models against the incoming covariational data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectations and interpretations during causal learning.

In existing models of causal induction, 4 types of covariation information (i.e., presence/absence of an event followed by presence/absence of another event) always exert identical influences on causal strength judgments (e.g., joint presence of events always suggests a generative causal relationship). In contrast, we suggest that, due to expectations developed during causal learning, learners give varied interpretations to covariation information as it is encountered and that these interpretations influence the resulting causal beliefs. In Experiments 1A–1C, participants' interpretations of observations during a causal learning task were dynamic, expectation based, and, furthermore, strongly tied to subsequent causal judgments. Experiment 2 demonstrated that adding trials of joint absence or joint presence of events, whose roles have been traditionally interpreted as increasing causal strengths, could result in decreased overall causal judgments and that adding trials where one event occurs in the absence of another, whose roles have been traditionally interpreted as decreasing causal strengths, could result in increased overall causal judgments. We discuss implications for traditional models of causal learning and how a more top-down approach (e.g., Bayesian) would be more compatible with the current findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attentional retraining procedures: Manipulating early or late components of attentional bias?

According to cognitive models of anxiety disorders, attentional bias for threatening information is a vulnerability factor to the etiology and maintenance of anxiety. A recently developed methodology to reduce attentional bias has been found to reduce emotional reactivity and anxiety. The present study aimed at identifying the effects of this attentional bias reduction on early and later stages of threat processing. Undergraduates were allocated to an attentional bias reduction (n = 23) versus control condition (n = 25). It was found that attentional bias reduction influenced late but not early stages of threat processing. This finding is of theoretical importance in relation to studies on the causal role of attentional bias and emotional reactivity. Moreover, the present findings also bear relevance to the clinical application of attentional retraining procedures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Quantitative Methods for Design-Build Team Selection

The use of design/build (DB) contracting by transportation agencies has been steadily increasing as a project delivery system for large complex highway projects. However, moving to DB from traditional design-bid-build procurement can be a challenge. One significant barrier is gaining acceptance of a best-value selection process in which technical aspects of a proposal are considered separately and then combined with price to determine the winning proposal. These technical aspects mostly consist of qualitative criteria, thus making room for human errors or biases. Any perceived presence of bias or influence in the selection process can lead to public mistrust and protests by bidders. It is important that a rigorous quantitative mathematical analysis of the evaluation process be conducted to determine whether bias exists and to eliminate it. The paper discusses two potential sources of bias—evaluators and weighting model—in the DB selection process and presents mathematical models to detect and remove biases should they exist. A score normalization model deals with biases from the evaluators; then a graphical weight-space volume model and a Monte Carlo statistical sampling model are developed to remove biases from the weighting model. The models are then tested and demonstrated using results from the DB bridge replacement project for the collapsed Mississippi River bridge of Interstate 35W in Minneapolis.     

Cognitive-processing bias in chronic pain: A review and integration.

Do patients with chronic pain selectively process pain- and illness-related stimuli? The evidence with regard to attention, interpretation, and recall biases is critically reviewed. A model is proposed to account for the findings in which it is suggested that biases in information processing in chronic pain are the result of overlap between 3 schemas: pain, illness, and self. With frequent repeated or continued experience of pain, the pain schema becomes enmeshed with illness and self-schemas. The extent of the enmeshment and the salient content of the schema determine the bias. A fundamental assumption is that all patients with pain selectively process sensory-intensity information. A clinical implication of the results is that processing biases that extend beyond this healthy and adaptive process to enmesh the self-schema with pain and illness schemas could maintain and exacerbate distress and illness behavior in patients with chronic pain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Whither cognitive bias modification research? Commentary on the special section articles.

This commentary reviews key theoretical, methodological, and clinical issues raised by recent research on cognitive bias modification (CBM). The authors identify the major ways in which the new work reported within this special section extends earlier CBM research. In particular, they note that it considers a wider range of participants, includes a greater diversity of symptoms measures, and targets for change a broader array of processing biases than previously has been the case. Furthermore, they point out that the present work develops and employs a more diverse arsenal of bias modification procedures, in some cases delivered across extended periods of time within naturalistic settings. They also draw attention to methodological limitations associated with the current studies, offering recommendations concerning how future CBM research might profitably build upon these exciting new directions while overcoming such limitations. Finally, they evaluate the theoretical and applied implications of the reported findings, discussing their capacity to illuminate the causal contributions made by cognitive bias to emotional vulnerability and their promise concerning the potential therapeutic value of CBM as a clinical tool. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toward a cognitive process model of ethnic/racial biases in clinical judgment.

The purpose of the present article is to discuss approaches to the development of cognitive process models of misdiagnosis of African Americans, with particular emphasis on structured clinical interviews. Two basic approaches to cognitive process models are discussed. The first is cognitive bias based on prototype models of information processing. The second approach involves using the structured clinical interview to see how and when the decision-making process may be flawed, or where cognitive shifts are made in considering one diagnosis over another. Although routine training in structured clinical interviews may nullify cognitive biases associated with clinician judgment, it does not address cultural biases in the diagnostic system. It is concluded that a comprehensive approach to training in clinical decision making for mental health professionals is needed which include courses in the administration of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV, sociocultural case formulation, and cross-cultural sensitivity in making psychodiagnostic judgments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)