The impact of stereotype-incongruent information on perceived group variability and stereotype change.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 78(4) of Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (see record 2007-17406-001). In this article, Table 3 (p. 987) contained an error. The row "Number of subgroups" was inadvertently omitted. The corrected table appears in this erratum.] Three experiments showed increases in the perceived variability of social groups after perceivers received stereotype-incongruent information about group members. In Experiment 1, participants generated flatter distributions after exposure to incongruent information, compared with equally deviant congruent information, in the form of typical verbal materials. Experiment 2 indicated similar changes in dispersion after the presentation of numeric information about a single group member. In Experiment 3, the authors manipulated cognitive load at encoding or at the time group judgments were requested. Under conditions of cognitive constraint, stereotype-incongruent information ceased to promote more dispersed group representations. These results are consistent with the idea that incongruent information triggers more deliberative and comprehensive retrieval and generation of exemplars. The authors discuss the implications of these findings for stereotype change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of new group members' in-group and out-group stereotypes: Changes in perceived variability and ethnocentrism.

Changes in new members' in-group and out-group stereotypes were examined, distinguishing among three stereotype components: stereotypicality, dispersion, and ethnocentrism. Pledges in 4 sororities judged their in-group and out-groups 4 times during their 8-month induction. Overall, out-groups were judged more stereotypically than in-groups at every wave. Although out-groups were initially perceived as more dispersed than in-groups, decreased out-group dispersion resulted in a shift toward out-group homogeneity. Ethnocentrism was present at every wave but decreased because of decreased in-group positivity. The authors discuss implications of these results for existing explanations of stereotype development. It is suggested that other aspects of group socialization (R. L. Moreland & J. M. Levine, 1982) are needed to explain fully the development of intergroup perceptions for new group members. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of power on perceived and objective group variability: Evidence that more powerful groups are more variable.

The perception of group variability is affected by social power and status. Three different mechanisms may be responsible for these effects: (1) the power of the perceiver affects perceived group variability; (2) the power of the perceived group affects its perceived variability; and (3) the power of the group affects its actual variability. Two studies are reported to tease apart these three mechanisms and provide support for the third. In the first study, high- and low-power groups interacted and subsequently judged each other. In the second study, participants observed and rated the Study 1 groups, either knowing their power relationship or not. Results suggest that members of high-power groups manifest greater interpersonal variability than members of low-power groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of human models on perceived product quality.

Studied the effects of human models in advertisements on the individual's perception of and attitude toward the product. 32 male and 32 female undergraduates were tested under 3 experimental and 1 control conditions for each of 4 different products (car, sofa, TV, and stereo). In the 3 experimental conditions a male, a female, and a male-female pair were used as models. In the control condition the product was presented without any model. Results reveal that the "fittingness" of the models for the product was an important variable in product advertisements. The implications of congruity theories for product advertisements are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of perceived dependency relationships upon conformity to group expectations.

The study was designed to test the hypothesis that "group members perceiving themselves as interdependent for their reward attainment become highly motivated toward the group task." Results generally are in accord with several predictions, one of which is that: "Members of groups who are instrumentally interdependent become more highly motivated toward the group task than Ss who can achieve their goals independently of the others in the group." Another prediction supported by results is that: "Under conditions of instrumental independence, Ss who are told that both they and their teammates can attain a valued goal through the group activity become more highly task motivated than Ss who are told either that only S or Ss partner can attain this goal." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Liking for the group and the perceived merit of the group's behavior.

Paris of Ss were told, individually, that their partners were congenial and they would probably like them (high like), or the converse (low like). Ss were then separated and given an artillery gunnery problem in which they were to judge the accuracy of their "observer's" range estimates. Both Ss in each pair thought the other 3 was the "observer," which was actually a taped recording piped to each S. High like Ss judged their "observer's" estimates as more accurate than low like Ss. Ss who had been led to believe that they had "observers" of high proficiency in range estimates tended to judge the estimate as more accurate than when they had low proficiency "observers." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stereotypes and social judgment: The consequences of group variability.

The present investigation examined the effects of group variability on judgments of single group members. Male and female participants formed impressions of a group of 50 men or women on the basis of their performance on a test of perceptual-motor skills. The variability of group performance varied across conditions. Participants then made speeded typicality judgments and ability ratings of several "new" group members whose performance varied in its discrepancy from the group. Compared with participants in the high variability condition, participants in the low variability condition were (a) more likely to judge discrepant group members as atypical and (b) faster to assess their atypicality. This latter effect decreased the probability that participants in the low variability condition used the group as a basis for judging atypical group members. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of meaningful subgroups in explaining differences in perceived variability for in-groups and out-groups.

Five aspects of the complexity of the knowledge representation of business and engineering majors were examined to see whether these differed by group memberships and whether these differences were related to differences in perceived variability. Significantly more subgroups were generated when describing the in-group than the out-group; this difference predicted the relative tendency to see the in-group as more variable, and when controlled for statistically, out-group homogeneity effects were eliminated. Familiarity, redundancy, number of attributes used to describe the group, and the deviance of the subgroups from the larger group generally showed differences for in-group and out-group but did not show consistent evidence of mediation. In a 2nd study, Ss who were asked to sort group members into meaningful subgroups perceived greater variability relative to those who did not perform the sorting task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An experimental investigation of group members' perceived influence over leader decisions.

The premise that increased perceived influence over leader-made decisions has positive effects on members' satisfaction and commitment was tested in an experiment. One hundred four participants in ad hoc groups of 4 (plus 1 confederate) gave their opinions about the settlement of a civil lawsuit to the group leader (a confederate), who made the decision on behalf of the group. Feedback provided to the participants by the leader manipulated members' perceived personal influence, and the influence of the group as a whole, over the leader's decision. Perceived personal influence predicted levels of satisfaction, whereas perceptions of group influence were important with respect to commitment to the decision. Results are integrated with recent work on leadership and organizational behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Out-group homogeneity: Judgments of variability at the individual and group levels.

Out-groups are generally seen as less variable or diverse than in-groups. Two explanations have been advanced for this out-group homogeneity effect. They differ in whether differential frequency of stored exemplars is a necessary condition for the out-group homogeneity effect. We used a modified minimal group paradigm to discriminate between the two. Our results suggest that when the group distinction is made salient by anticipated competition out-group homogeneity is obtained even with no difference in exemplar frequency. We also show that the effects of competition versus cooperation differ at the level of group judgments and memory for individual group members, such that at the group level out-groups are seen as less variable than in-groups under competition, but competition actually increases memory for information about individual out-group members. This combination of results is clearly inconsistent with an exemplar-based explanation of the out-group homogeneity effect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The impact of perceived group success-failure on motivational beliefs and attitudes: A causal model.

Two models describing the theoretical relationship among the constructs of perceived group success–failure, individual and collective levels of job-specific efficacy and outcome expectancy, satisfaction, and organizational commitment were developed. Model 1 proposed that the causal relationship between group success–failure and subsequent attitudinal variables (satisfaction and organizational commitment) is completely mediated by efficacy and outcome expectancy variables. Model 2 proposed a direct causal link from perceived group success–failure to the attitudinal variables and omitted questionable causal paths from personal efficacy and collective outcome expectancy to the attitudinal variables. The competing models were subjected to structural equation path model analysis. The 2nd model produced an adequate fit between theory and data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intraindividual variability in perceived control in a older sample: The MacArthur successful aging studies.

Two aspects of perceived control, locus of control (LOC) and perceived competence (COM), command significant attention in personality and aging research. Mainly, these concepts are regarded as stable variables of considerable promise for predicting a range of outcomes. The authors concentrate on week-to-week within-person variability in self-reported LOC and COM. Using data collected over 7 months, the authors first demonstrate that the responses of a panel of older participants are structurally consistent with dominant conceptions of perceived control and that the responses maintain an underlying structure over the frequently repeated protocol. They next show that the within-person variation over weekly measurements is coherent information rather than "noise" and that individual differences in magnitude of week-to-week variability are a relatively stable attribute that predicts mortality status 5 years later. Implications of the findings for both methodological and substantive concerns are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Team cognition in group interventions: The relation between coleaders' shared mental models and group climate.

The relation between the convergence in group coleaders' mental models of their groups and group members' perceptions of group climate was examined. Coleaders of 8 intergroup dialogue groups provided paired-comparison ratings of the similarity of their group members, and group members provided group climate ratings, following each of 7 sessions. The paired-comparison ratings were analyzed using pathfinder network analysis (Schvaneveldt, 1990) to examine the structure of each coleader's mental model of her or his group, and to compare these mental models within coleader pairs to determine degree of similarity in coleaders' mental models for each coleader pair for each week (i.e., how similarly coleaders of a group view their group). Growth curve analyses of the degree of similarity and group climate data showed an increase in similarity of coleaders' mental models within groups across sessions, and that similarity in coleader mental models was related to increases in the engaged and decreases in the avoiding aspects of the group climate. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reverse discrimination: The relationship of amount of perceived discrimination toward a minority group on the behaviour of majority group members.

Male and female members of 4 racial groups solicited charity donations from 7,120 middle-class Canadian whites in both public and private conditions. Black and Indian solicitors received significantly greater donations than white solicitors, who in turn received significantly greater donations than oriental solicitors. 1 mo. later, white interviewers asked a randomly-selected subsample (n = 500) to estimate the degree of discrimination to which various ethnic and racial groups are generally subjected. Results provide supportive evidence for 1 part of a "theory of reverse discrimination," i.e., that when middle-class whites are involved in "trivial" interactions with minority group members whom they perceive as belonging to groups that have been targets of discrimination, they will treat those minority group members better than they treat another white in identical circumstances. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Selectivity, scope, and simplicity of models: A lesson from fitting judgments of perceived depth.

When comparing psychological models a researcher should assess their relative selectivity, scope, and simplicity. The 3rd of these considerations can be measured by the models' parameter counts or equation length, the 2nd by their ability to fit random data, and the 1st by their differential ability to fit patterned data over random data. These conclusions are based on exploration of integration models reflecting depth judgments. Replication of D. W. Massaro's (1988) results revealed an additive model (N. Bruno and J. E. Cutting, 1988), and Massaro's fuzzy-logical model of perception (FLMP) fit data equally well, but further exploration showed that the FLMP fit random data better. The FLMP's successes may reflect not its sensitivity in capturing psychological process but its scope in fitting any data and its complexity as measured by equation length. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnicity and perceived discrimination in Toronto: Another look at the personal/group discrimination discrepancy.

Perceptions of personal and group discrimination in 5 domains (jobs, pay, loans, promotions, and clubs) were investigated via telephone interviews with 902 respondents from different ethnic groups in Toronto. The reported analyses concern 6 ethnic groups, representing "visible," racial minorities (Blacks, Chinese, and South Asians) as well as White minorities (Italians, Jews, and Portuguese). The personal/group discrimination discrepancy (i.e., perceiving greater discrimination toward one's group than oneself personally) was observed to varying extent across all domains and ethnic groups, though with some exceptions. Visible minorities perceived greater discrimination toward their group than did White minorities, especially in the economic domains of jobs, pay, and promotions. Among visible minorities, Black respondents perceived higher levels of group and personal discrimination than most other ethnic groups across domains, followed in turn by Chinese and South Asian respondents. By contrast, White minority group members perceived considerably less group or personal discrimination than members of visible minorities, except for Jewish respondents who reported greater group discrimination in joining clubs than any other ethnic group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Genetic variability among group A and group B respiratory syncytial viruses in a children's hospital

Respiratory syncytial (RS) viruses isolated over three epidemic periods in a children's hospital in the United States were analyzed. The viruses (n = 174) were characterized as to major antigenic group (group A or B) by a PCR-based assay. Group A RS viruses were dominant the first 2 years, followed by a year with group B dominance (ratios of group A to group B viruses for epidemic periods, 56/4 for 1993-1994, 42/3 for 1994-1995, and 19/50 for 1995-1996). Genetic variability within the groups was assessed by restriction fragment analysis of PCR products; 79 isolates were also analyzed by nucleotide sequence determination of a variable region of the glycoprotein G gene. Among the group A RS virus isolates, this G-protein variable region had amino acid differences of as great as 38%. The G-protein amino acids of the group A viruses differed by up to 31% from the G-protein amino acids of a prototype (A2) group A virus. Among the group B RS virus G proteins, amino acid differences were as great as 14%. The G-protein amino acids of the group B viruses differed by up to 27% from the G-protein amino acids of a prototype (18537) group B virus. The group A and group B RS viruses demonstrated genetic variability between years and within individual years. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that there were multiple evolutionary lineages among both the group A and group B viruses. Among the recent group B isolates, variability was less than that seen for the group A viruses. However, comparisons to prototype strains revealed that the group B RS viruses may vary more extensively than was observed over the 3 years studied in the present investigation.     

Explaining the relations among children's actual and perceived performances and self-esteem: A comparison of several causal models.

Used structural equation methods to compare various causal models of the relation between children's performances and self-esteem. Analysis was based on cross-sectional data collected from 415 children from 6th–8th grades. Ss' GPA, athletic performance, self-esteem, perceptions of academic ability, perceptions of sociometric status, and lists of peers they liked were analyzed. Models in which self-esteem affected perceptions of popularity fit the data better than models in which the reverse or reciprocal effects were posited. It appears that for ambiguous attributes, such as popularity, a self-consistency bias operates whereby children's self-esteem affects how popular they think they are. For more verifiable attributes (i.e., academic and athletic achievement), perceptions of achievement are more strongly related to actual achievement, and they are more likely to affect self-esteem rather than the reverse. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Tool use influences perceived shape and perceived parallelism, which serve as indirect measures of perceived distance.

Targets presented just beyond arm's reach look closer when observers intend to touch them with a reach-extending tool rather than without the tool. This finding is one of several that suggest that a person's ability to act influences perceived distance to objects. However, some critics have argued that apparent action effects were actually due to effects on the judgments rather than on the perception. In other words, the target does not actually look closer, but participants report that it is. To help counter this argument, the current experiments used an indirect measure of perceived distance: Participants reported perceived shape or perceived parallelism. The results revealed that triangles looked shorter and lines looked more horizontal to participants who reached with a tool, and therefore could reach the targets, than they did to participants who reached without the tool. These results demonstrate convergence across multiple types of judgments, a finding that undermines alternative, judgment-based accounts and suggests that the ability to reach an object changes the perceived distance to the object. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dysphoria as a moderator of the relationship between perceived effort and perceived ability.

Although Heiderian logic (F. Heider, 1958) proposes an inverse relationship between ability and effort, research has uncovered dramatic individual differences in the judged relationship between the two. Some view ability and effort as positively related; others view them as negatively related. Study 1, with 64 undergraduates, explored dysphoria as a moderator of this relationship by gathering dysphoric and nondysphoric individuals' perceptions of their effort and ability on daily activities. Although ability and effort generally were positively related, dysphorics reported lower ability on high effort tasks. In Study 2, 84 undergraduate Ss rated their effort as high or low. Dysphorics discounted ability when effort was high; nondysphorics reported the greatest ability when they expended the greatest effort. Collectively, there was no support for an inverse relationship between ability and effort. However, dysphorics infer less ability than nondysphorics following high effort. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)